Acute rheumatic fever and streptococci: the quintessential pathogenic trigger of autoimmunity

Cytomegalovirus, a "Friend" of SARS-CoV-2: A Case Report

INTRODUCTION

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is present in a latent state in 70-90% of the immunocompetent population, and its reactivation might be triggered by inflammatory conditions such as post-COVID multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C) or by immunosuppression induced by steroids. The aim of this paper was to highlight the unexpected complications associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection that require a complex clinical approach for accurate diagnosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We present the case of a 4-year-old male patient who, during an initially favorable course of PIMS, experienced symptoms of respiratory failure.

RESULTS

The patient initially presented with clinical and paraclinical signs of PIMS with cardiac involvement, for which high-dose corticosteroid therapy was initiated, followed by gradual tapering, along with immunoglobulins, anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, and symptomatic treatment. After 10 days of favorable progress, the patient's general condition deteriorated, showing tachypnea, desaturation, and a ground-glass appearance on thoracic CT. Negative inflammatory markers and favorable cardiac lesion evolution ruled out MIS-C relapse. The presence of anti-CMV IgM antibodies and viral DNA in the blood confirmed acute CMV infection, likely triggered by prior severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and secondary immunosuppression due to steroids. Non-specific immunomodulatory treatment was initiated but led to worsening of pulmonary lesions, prompting the initiation of specific antiviral treatment with ganciclovir, resulting in rapid clinical and imaging improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

CMV infection can be reactivated by immunosuppression induced by corticosteroid therapy for MIS-C and may require specific etiological treatment.

First detection of cutavirus DNA in stools of patients with rheumatic diseases in Guangzhou, China

Cutavirus (CuV) is a novel protoparvovirus possibly associated with diarrhea and cutaneous T-cell lymphomas. Patients with rheumatic disease are immunosuppressed and may be more vulnerable to pathogenic viruses. A descriptive study was conducted among hospitalized patients with rheumatic diseases and individuals undergoing medical health check-ups between June 2019 and June 2022 in Guangzhou, China. Stool samples of subjects were tested for CuV DNA. Demographic and fecal examination data of patients were obtained from electronic medical records. A total of 505 patients with rheumatic diseases and 244 individuals who underwent medical health check-ups were included in the study. Of the patients with rheumatic disease, 5.74% [95% confidence interval (CI): 4.03%-8.12%] were positive for CuV DNA, while no individual in the medical health check-up group was positive, indicating a close correlation between CuV and rheumatic disease. Men and patients with rheumatoid arthritis or ankylosing spondylitis, according to the disease classification, were more susceptible to being infected with CuV (P ​< ​0.01). After adjustments, being male remained the only significant factor, with an adjusted odd ratio (OR) of 4.4 (95% CI: 1.7-11.4, P ​= ​0.002). Phylogenetic analysis of the CuV VP2 sequences showed three diverse clades, one of which was segregated to be a single branching independent of previously known sequences, which is possible a new genotype.

The microbiome and rheumatic heart disease: current knowledge and future perspectives

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a cardiovascular disease caused by an autoimmune response to group A Streptococcus (GAS) infection resulting in the damage of heart valves. RHD is the most commonly acquired heart disease among children and young adults with a global burden of over 40 million cases accounting for 306,000 deaths annually. Inflammation in the heart valves caused due to molecular mimicry between the GAS antigens and host cardiac proteins is facilitated by cytokines, cross-reactive antibodies and CD4⁺ T cells. The complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors linked with erratic events leads to the loss of immunological tolerance and autoimmunity in RHD. Despite extensive research on the etiopathogenesis of RHD, the precise mechanism underpinning the initiation of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) to the progression of RHD still remains elusive. Mounting evidences support the contribution of the human microbiome in the development of several immune-mediated diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, Kawasaki disease, inflammatory bowel disease and type 1 diabetes. The microbiome and their metabolites could play a crucial role in the integrity of the epithelial barrier, development of the immune system, inflammation and differentiation of T cell subsets. Consequently, microbiome dysbiosis might result in autoimmunity by molecular mimicry, epitope spreading and bystander activation. This review discusses various aspects of the interaction between the microbiome and the immune system in order to reveal causative links relating dysbiosis and autoimmune diseases with special emphasis on RHD.

Figurate annulare erythemas

T. Colcott Fox (1849-1916) first introduced in 1889 the term "figurate erythemas." According to the clinical pattern, figurate erythemas are annular, circinate, concentric, polycyclic, or arciform. The most important figurate annulare erythemas are erythema annulare centrifugum, erythema marginatum, erythema gyratum repens, erythema migrans, erythema chronicum migrans, and the pediatric annular erythemas. Erythema annulare centrifugum might be due to fungal, bacterial, or viral infections or drugs. It tends to spread centrifugally while developing central clearing. The most common locations are the trunk and the proximal extremities. Individual lesions last from several days to weeks and may resolve spontaneously. Erythema marginatum is one of the criteria for the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever, but it also might be seen as a symptom of other diseases such as hereditary angioedema with C1-inhibitor deficiency and psittacosis. The typical clinical picture is presented by serpiginous erythematous macules and plaques with central clearing and accentuated borders. Erythema gyratum repens is a figurate erythema associated with internal malignancy. It has been linked especially to lung, esophageal, and breast cancers. Erythema gyratum repens is characterized by multiple erythematous, rounded macules or papules, rapidly progressing and forming concentric bands with an unique wood-grained appearance with desquamation on the edges of the erythema. Erythema chronicum migrans is the most common sign of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi and other Borrelia species. It is characterized by a round or oval erythematous or livid macule with a central depressed or raised area on the spot of a previous tick bite. Erythema migrans grows centrifugally and slowly in a matter of days or weeks. Central clearing is observed in 60% of patients, thus forming a targetoid appearance of the lesion. Many other figurate erythemas can be observed in infancy (pediatric annular erythemas). To this group belong neonatal lupus, erythema gyratum atrophicans transiens neonatale, annular centrifugal erythema, familial annular erythema, annular erythema of infancy, eosinophilic annular erythema, and figurate neutrophilic erythema of infancy. The treatment of the various types of figurate erythemas should be etiologic, and when the underlying condition is addressed, the therapy usually is successful.

Cardiovascular Diseases and Pharmacomicrobiomics: A Perspective on Possible Treatment Relevance

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), the most common cause of mortality in rich countries, include a wide variety of pathologies of the heart muscle and vascular system that compromise the proper functioning of the heart. Most of the risk factors for cardiovascular diseases are well-known: lipid disorders, high serum LDL cholesterol, hypertension, smoking, obesity, diabetes, male sex and physical inactivity. Currently, much evidence shows that: (i) the human microbiota plays a crucial role in maintaining the organism’s healthy status; and (ii) a link exists between microbiota and cardiovascular function that, if dysregulated, could potentially correlate with CVDs. This scenario led the scientific community to carefully analyze the role of the microbiota in response to drugs, considering this the right path to improve the effectiveness of disease treatment. In this review, we examine heart diseases and highlight how the microbiota actually plays a preponderant role in their development. Finally, we investigate pharmacomicrobiomics—a new interesting field—and the microbiota’s role in modulating the response to drugs, to improve their effectiveness by making their action targeted, focusing particular attention on cardiovascular diseases and on innovative potential treatments.

PIMS-TS, the New Paediatric Systemic Inflammatory Disease Related to Previous Exposure to SARS-CoV-2 Infection-"Rheumatic Fever" of the 21st Century?

Paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (PIMS-TS) is a new systemic inflammatory disease that mainly affects children. Its course in many features resembles that of acute rheumatic fever (ARF). Therefore, it is interesting that the experiences with ARF can be used in the management of patients with PIMS-TS. The aim of the article is to analyse the current data on PIMS-TS in relation to ARF. PIMS-TS and ARF are associated with an abnormal immune response to specific pathogens (SARS-CoV-2 and group A streptococcus, respectively). The main symptoms of both diseases are fever and cardiac involvement. Current therapy for PIMS-TS is based on anti-inflammatory treatment: intravenous immunoglobulin (first-line), intravenous glucocorticoids (second-line), or biological therapy (third-line; including interleukin [IL]-1 antagonists, IL-6 receptor blockers, and anti-tumour necrosis factor agents). Vaccination might be good prophylaxis, but the efficacy and safety of the vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have not yet been established in children. Interesting insights may be gained by considering PIMS-TS in light of what is known of ARF due to their similar courses, but there are still many unanswered questions surrounding this disease and its pathogenesis.

Survey of actual conditions of erythema marginatum as a prodromal symptom in Japanese patients with hereditary angioedema

Background

Hereditary angioedema (HAE) is a rare but life-threatening condition. HAE types I and II (HAE-1/2) result from C1-inhibitor (C1–INH) deficiency. However, recent genetic analysis has established a new type of HAE with normal C1–INH (HAEnC1-INH). The mutations of factor XII, plasminogen, angiopoietin 1, and kininogen 1 genes may be the cause of HAEnC1-INH. Nevertheless, other causative molecules (HAE-unknown) may be involved. The Japanese therapeutic environment for HAE has been improving owing to the self-subcutaneous injection of icatibant, which was approved for the treatment of acute attack and enables early therapy. Erythema marginatum (EM) is a visible prodromal symptom which occasionally occurs prior to an angioedema attack; hence, recognizing the risk of an acute attack is important for early treatment. However, the detailed characteristics of EM remain unclear. In this study, we first investigated the clinical manifestations of EM in Japanese patients with HAE.

Methods

A 20-point survey was developed and distributed to 40 physicians to gather clinical data on EM from patients with HAE.

Results

Data on 68 patients with HAE (58 patients with HAE-1/2 and 10 patients with HAE-unknown) were collected. Of the patients with HAE-1/2, 53.4% experienced EM, whereas 43.1% did not. The forearm was the most frequent area of EM (64.5%), followed by the abdomen (29.0%) and upper arm and precordium (19.3%). Of the HAE-1/2 patients with EM, 41.9% always had angioedema following EM, while 29.0% always had colocalization of EM with angioedema. Moreover, 3.2% showed a correlation between the awareness of EM and severity of an angioedema attack. In 60.9% of HAE-1/2 patients with EM, the interval between the awareness of EM and appearance of angioedema was <3 h. Of the patients with HAE-unknown, 30.0% also experienced EM.

Conclusion

We confirmed that more than one-half of Japanese patients with HAE-1/2 and one-third of those with HAE-unknown develop EM as the prodromal symptom of an angioedema attack. Physicians should communicate the significance of EM to patients with HAE to prepare them for possible imminent attacks.

Focus on Cardiologic Findings in 30 Children With PANS/PANDAS: An Italian Single-Center Observational Study

Objective: Cardiac involvement in PANS has not been clarified relying on the scientific literature available until today. It is known that streptococcal infections play a role in the etiology of a great number of diseases including Sydenham chorea and rheumatic fever, among others. Based on the suspected pathogenesis of PANDAS (Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infections) reported in the medical literature, we decided to investigate the cardiologic involvement in children with a recent PANS/PANDAS diagnosis. Methods: The study population satisfies PANS (1) and PANDAS (2) criteria of diagnoses. Cardiologic assessment was performed through clinical examination, electrocardiography, and echocardiography. Results: In the selected pediatric population, a significant number of children presented mitral valve involvement, systolic murmurs and electrocardiographic abnormalities. High ASLOT levels did not seem to be associated to a cardiac involvement. Conclusions: Often PANS is difficult to diagnose because it is little known by physicians and most of the cardiologic findings described in this study are common among the healthy pediatric population. Also, ASLOT levels seems not to be predictive of cardiac involvement. Furthermore, the existence of PANDAS as a clinical entity is associated with a group of anti-neuronal autoantibodies found in Sydenham chorea is still controversial. We recommend a complete cardiologic evaluation in those children who meet the PANS/PANDAS diagnostic criteria.

Rheumatic fever: update on the Jones criteria according to the American Heart Association review - 2015

Rheumatic fever is still currently a prevalent disease, especially in developing countries. Triggered by a Group A β-hemolytic Streptococcus infection, the disease may affect genetically predisposed patients. Rheumatic carditis is the most important of its clinical manifestations, which can generate incapacitating sequelae of great impact for the individual and for society. Currently, its diagnosis is made based on the Jones criteria, established in 1992 by the American Heart Association. In 2015, the AHA carried out a significant review of these criteria, with new diagnostic parameters and recommendations. In the present study, the authors perform a critical analysis of this new review, emphasizing the most relevant points for clinical practice.

Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B inhibits apoptotic cell clearance by macrophages through protein S cleavage

Clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages plays an important role in maintaining tissue homeostasis. Previous study indicated that streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SPE B) reduces phagocytic activity in group A streptococcus (GAS) infection. Here, we demonstrate that SPE B causes an inhibitory effect on protein S-mediated phagocytosis. In the presence of SPE B, serum- and purified protein S-mediated phagocytosis of apoptotic cells were significantly inhibited. The binding abilities of protein S to apoptotic cells were decreased by treatment with SPE B. Bacterial culture supernatants from GAS NZ131 strain also caused a reduction of protein S binding to apoptotic cells, but speB mutant strain did not. SPE B directly cleaved protein S in vitro and in vivo, whereas a lower level of cleavage occurred in mice infected with a speB isogenic mutant strain. SPE B-mediated initial cleavage of protein S caused a disruption of phagocytosis, and also resulted in a loss of binding ability of protein S-associated C4b-binding protein to apoptotic cells. Taken together, these results suggest a novel pathogenic role of SPE B that initiates protein S degradation followed by the inhibition of apoptotic cell clearance by macrophages.

[Acute rheumatic fever and infectious-inflammatory diseases of the pharynx: the relationship, treatment, and prophylaxis]

The relationship between pharyngeal infections, such as tonsillitis and pharyngitis, caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococci (BHSA) and acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a well-established fact confirmed by numerous studies carried out along the following lines: epidemiological, immunological, therapeutic, and prophylactic. The currently available data provide an opportunity to discuss the existence of «rheumatogenic» BHSA strains exhibiting a number of characteristic clinical and morphological properties. According to the current recommendations penicillins remain the means of first-line therapy for the treatment of acute forms of BHSA-induced tonsillitis and pharyngitis, whereas the macrolides should be applied only as the alternative medications in the patients with intolerance to beta-lactam antibiotics. This article contains characteristics of BHSA-carrier state and the principal indications for the prescription of antibiotics to the patients with these conditions. The key principle of secondary medicamental prophylaxis of acute respiratory infections are expounded along with the main fines of future research on the problems associated with BHSA-induced pharyngeal infections.

Geoepidemiological hints about Streptococcus pyogenes strains in relationship with acute rheumatic fever

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) strains are lately classified on the basis of sequence variations in the emm gene encoding the M protein, but despite the high number of distinct emm genotypes, the spectrum of phenotypes varying from invasive suppurative to non-suppurative GAS-related disorders has still to be defined. The relationship of GAS types with the uprising of acute rheumatic fever (ARF), a multisystemic disease caused by misdirected anti-GAS response in predisposed people, is also obscure. Studies published over the last 15 years were retrieved from PubMed using the keywords: "Streptococcus pyogenes" or "group A Streptococcus" and "acute rheumatic fever": the prevalence of peculiar emm types across different countries of the world is highly variable, depending on research designs, year of observation, country involved, patients' age, and gender. Most studies revealed that a relatively small number of specific emm/M protein types can be considered "rheumatogenic", as potentially characterized by the possibility of inducing ARF, with remarkable differences between developing and developed countries. The association between emm types and post-streptococcal manifestations is challenging, however surveillance of disease-causing variants in a specific community with high rate of ARF should be reinforced with the final goal of developing a potential primary prophylaxis against GAS infections.

Animal models to investigate the pathogenesis of rheumatic heart disease

Rheumatic fever (RF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) are sequelae of group A streptococcal (GAS) infection. Although an autoimmune process has long been considered to be responsible for the initiation of RF/RHD, it is only in the last few decades that the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of the inflammatory condition have been unraveled partly due to experimentation on animal models. RF/RHD is a uniquely human condition and modeling this disease in animals is challenging. Antibody and T cell responses to recombinant GAS M protein (rM) and the subsequent interactions with cardiac tissue have been predominantly investigated using a rat autoimmune valvulitis model. In Lewis rats immunized with rM, the development of hallmark histological features akin to RF/RHD, both in the myocardial and in valvular tissue have been reported, with the generation of heart tissue cross-reactive antibodies and T cells. Recently, a Lewis rat model of Sydenham's chorea and related neuropsychiatric disorders has also been described. Rodent models are very useful for assessing disease mechanisms due to the availability of reagents to precisely determine sequential events following infection with GAS or post-challenge with specific proteins and or carbohydrate preparations from GAS. However, studies of cardiac function are more problematic in such models. In this review, a historical overview of animal models previously used and those that are currently available will be discussed in terms of their usefulness in modeling different aspects of the disease process. Ultimately, cardiologists, microbiologists, immunologists, and physiologists may have to resort to diverse models to investigate different aspects of RF/RHD.