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Radeef AY, Najim AA, Karaghool HA, Jabbar ZH. Sustainable kitchen wastewater treatment with electricity generation using upflow biofilter-microbial fuel cell system. Biodegradation 2024; 35:893-906. [PMID: 38909143 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-024-10087-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) is considered a modern technology used for treating wastewater and recovering electrical energy. In this study, a new dual technology combining MFC and a specialized biofilter was used. The anodic materials in the system were crushed graphite, either without coating (UFB-MFC) or coated with nanomaterials (nano-UFB-MFC). This biofilter served as a barrier to retain and remove turbidity and suspended solids, while also facilitating the role of bacteria in the removal of organic pollutants, phosphates, nitrates, sulfates, oil and greases. The results demonstrated that both systems exhibited high efficiency in treating kitchen wastewater, specifically greywater and dishwashing wastewater with high detergent concentrations. The removal efficiencies of COD, oil and grease, suspended solids, turbidity, nitrates, sulfates, and phosphates in first UFB-MFC were found to be 88, 95, 89, 86, 87, 75, and 94%, respectively, and in Nano-UFB-MFC were 86, 99, 95, 91, 81, 88, and 95%, respectively, with a high efficiency in recovering bioenergy reaching a value of 1.8 and 1.5 A m-3, respectively. The results of this study demonstrate the potential for developing MFC and utilizing it as a domestic system to mitigate pollution risks before discharging wastewater into the sewer network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Y Radeef
- Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Tikrit, Salah al-Din, Iraq.
| | | | - Haneen A Karaghool
- Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Tikrit, Salah al-Din, Iraq
| | - Zaid H Jabbar
- Building and Construction Technique Engineering Department, Al-Mustaqbal University College, 51001, Hillah, Babylon, Iraq
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Cai J, Qaisar M, Chen B, Wang K, Wang R, Lou J. Deciphering the roles of suspended sludge and fixed sludge at electrode in microbial fuel cell accomplishing sulfide-based autotrophic denitrification. Biochem Eng J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2023.108874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
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Effect of substrate ratios on the simultaneous carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorous conversions in microbial fuel cells. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07338. [PMID: 34195439 PMCID: PMC8233142 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The columbic efficiency, removal efficiency and voltage production of seven different combinations of carbon (acetic acid, albumin and sucrose) with nutrients (C:N, C:P, C:S, C:N:S, C:P:S, C:N:P and C: N:S:P) were investigated at three different ratios (20:1, 15:1 and 10:1). The effects of various pH values were also explored for these combinations of carbon, and sulfur compounds (pH 6-8). The highest columbic efficiency (75.8%), COD removal efficiency (86%) and voltage (667 mV) were recorded when the acetic acid was used in the MFC and the lowest columbic efficiency (12.8%), removal efficiency (37.6%) and voltage (145 mV) were observed in case of albumin. A marked increase in columbic efficiency, removal efficiency and voltage production were seen with the rise in the pH value from 6 to 8. The lowest columbic efficiency, removal efficiency and voltage production were seen at pH 6 and highest at pH 8. At each investigated pH, the highest removal efficiency, columbic efficiency, and voltage were found at substrate ratio of 20:1 while lower at 10:1. At all pH values, the carbon to nutrient ratios seemed to have followed a similar trend i.e., the COD removal efficiency, columbic efficiency and voltage generation was found in the order C:N > C:N:S > C:N:S:P > C:N:P > C:S > C:P:S > C:P. In all cases, nitrogen showed a higher removal as compared to phosphorous and sulfur.
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Cai J, Qaisar M, Ding A, Zhang J, Xing Y, Li Q. Insights into microbial community in microbial fuel cells simultaneously treating sulfide and nitrate under external resistance. Biodegradation 2021; 32:73-85. [PMID: 33442823 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-021-09926-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The effect of electricity, induced by external resistance, on microbial community performance is investigated in Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) involved in simultaneous biotransformation of sulfide and nitrate. In the experiment, three MFCs were operated under different external resistances (100 Ω, 1000 Ω and 10,000 Ω), while one MFC was operated with open circuit as control. All MFCs demonstrate good capacity for simultaneous sulfide and nitrate biotransformation regardless of external resistance. MFCs present similar voltage profile; however, the output voltage has positive relationship with external resistance, and the MFC1 with lowest external resistance (100 Ω) generated highest power density. High-throughput sequencing confirms that taxonomic distribution of suspended sludge in anode chamber encompass phylum level to genus level, while the results of principal component analysis (PCA) suggest that microbial communities are varied with external resistance, which external resistance caused the change of electricity generation and substrate removal at the same, and then leads to the change of microbial communities. However, based on Pearson correlation analyses, no strong correlation is evident between community diversity indices (ACE index, Chao index, Shannon index and Simpson index) and the electricity (final voltage and current density). It is inferred that the performance of electricity did not significantly affect the diversity of microbial communities in MFCs biotransforming sulfide and nitrate simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Cai
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, No.18 Xuezheng Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.
| | - Mahmood Qaisar
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Aqiang Ding
- Department of Environmental Science, College of Resource and Environmental Science, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiqiang Zhang
- College of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Binzhou University, Binzhou, China
| | - Yajuan Xing
- College of Geomatics and Municipal Engineering, Zhejiang University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiangbiao Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, No.18 Xuezheng Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
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Cai J, Qaisar M, Sun Y, Wang K, Lou J, Wang R. Coupled substrate removal and electricity generation in microbial fuel cells simultaneously treating sulfide and nitrate at various influent sulfide to nitrate ratios. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 306:123174. [PMID: 32197955 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The current work coupled simultaneous sulfide and nitrate removal in a Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC). The substrate removal and electricity generation were coupled at influent Sulfide to Nitrate molar ratios (S/N ratios) of 5:0, 5:1, 5:2 and 5:3. The sulfide concentrations used included: 60 mg S/L, 300 mg S/L, 540 mg S/L, 780 mg S/L and 1020 mg S/L. The effect of S/N ratio on the performance of substrate removal was greater at higher influent sulfide concentration. The electricity generation also varied at different influent sulfide concentrations and S/N ratios. The number of electrons generated at S/N ratio of 5:2 was the largest at any fixed influent sulfide concentration. The Pearson correlation showed that effluent sulfate concentration and nitrogen gas had significant positive correlations with steady state voltage (or electronic quantity). Moreover, the simulation models were developed to establish the relation between substrate removal and electricity generation at various S/N ratios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Cai
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Mahmood Qaisar
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Pakistan
| | - Yue Sun
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Kaiquan Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Juqing Lou
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ruyi Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
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Cai J, Qaisar M, Sun Y. Effect of external resistance on substrate removal and electricity generation in microbial fuel cell treating sulfide and nitrate simultaneously. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:238-249. [PMID: 31784879 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-06960-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The effect of external resistance on substrate removal and electricity generation was explored in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) simultaneously treating sulfide and nitrate. The MFCs were operated under three different conditions keeping open-circuit MFC as control. In batch mode, all the MFCs showed good capacity of simultaneously removing sulfide and nitrate regardless of external resistance. The voltage profile could be divided into rapid descent zone, bulge zone, and stability zone, which represents typical polarization behavior. Taking open circuit as control, low external resistance promoted the production of sulfate and nitrogen gas, while a strong link between product production and external resistance was evident based on Pearson correlation analyses. In addition, low external resistance improved the amount of transferred electrons, while the peak electronic quantity was noticed when the external resistance was equivalent to internal resistance. Moreover, the mechanism of substrate removal and electricity generation was hypothesized for the MFCs simultaneously treating sulfide and nitrate which explained the results well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Cai
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, No.18 Xuezheng Street, Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Mahmood Qaisar
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Pakistan
| | - Yue Sun
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, No.18 Xuezheng Street, Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
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Yang M, Zhong Y, Zhang B, Shi J, Huang X, Xing Y, Su L, Liu H, Borthwick AGL. Enhanced sulfide removal and bioelectricity generation in microbial fuel cells with anodes modified by vertically oriented nanosheets. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2019; 40:1770-1779. [PMID: 29345191 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2018.1429496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Anode materials and structures are of critical importance for microbial fuel cells (MFCs) recovering energy from toxic substrates. Carbon-fiber-felt anodes modified by layers of vertically oriented TiO2 and Fe2O3 nanosheets were applied in the present study. Enhanced sulfide removal efficiencies (both over 90%) were obtained after a 48-h operation, with maximum power densities improved by 1.53 and 1.36 folds compared with MFCs with raw carbon-fiber-felt anode. The modified anodes provided more active sites for microbial adhesion with increasing biomass densities. High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis also indicated the increase in microbial diversities. Bacteroidetes responsible for bioelectricity generation with Thiobacillus and Spirochaeta dominating sulfide removal were found in the MFCs with the modified anodes, with less anaerobic fermentative bacteria as Firmicutes appeared. This indicates that the proposed materials are competitive for applications of MFCs generating bioelectricity from toxic sulfide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Yang
- a School of Water Resources and Environment , MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Yuezhi Zhong
- a School of Water Resources and Environment , MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Baogang Zhang
- a School of Water Resources and Environment , MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Jiaxin Shi
- a School of Water Resources and Environment , MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Xueyang Huang
- a School of Water Resources and Environment , MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Xing
- b School of Energy and Environmental Engineering , University of Sciences and Technology Beijing, Beijing Key Laboratory of Resource-oriented Treatment of Industrial Pollutants , Beijing , People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Su
- c State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, Southeast University , Nanjing , People's Republic of China
| | - Huipeng Liu
- a School of Water Resources and Environment , MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and Environmental Evolution, China University of Geosciences , Beijing , People's Republic of China
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Zhong L, Zhang S, Wei Y, Bao R. Power recovery coupled with sulfide and nitrate removal in separate chambers using a microbial fuel cell. Biochem Eng J 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Li M, Pan Y, Huang L, Zhang Y, Yang J. Continuous flow operation with appropriately adjusting composites in influent for recovery of Cr(VI), Cu(II) and Cd(II) in self-driven MFC-MEC system. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2017; 38:615-628. [PMID: 27336289 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2016.1205149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A self-driven microbial fuel cell (MFC) - microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) system, where electricity generated from MFCs is in situ utilized for powering MECs, has been previously reported for recovering Cr(VI), Cu(II) and Cd(II) with individual metals fed in different units of the system in batch operation. Here it was advanced with treating synthetic mixed metals' solution at appropriately adjusting composites in fed-batch and continuous flow operations for complete separation of Cr(VI), Cu(II) and Cd(II) from each other. Under an optimal condition of hydraulic residence time of 4 h, matching of two serially connected MFCs with one MEC, and fed with a composite of either 5 mg L-1 Cr(VI), 1 mg L-1 Cu(II) and 5 mg L-1 Cd(II), or 1 mg L-1 Cr(VI), 5 mg L-1 Cu(II) and 5 mg L-1 Cd(II), the self-driven MFC-MEC system can completely and sequentially recover Cu(II), Cr(VI) and Cd(II) from mixed metals. This study provides a true sustainable and zero-energy-consumed approach of using bioelectrochemical systems for completely recovering and separating Cr(VI), Cu(II) and Cd(II) from each other or from wastes or contaminated sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Li
- a Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Ministry of Education (MOE) , School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology , Dalian , People's Republic of China
| | - Yuzhen Pan
- b Experiment Center of Chemistry , Dalian University of Technology , Dalian , People's Republic of China
| | - Liping Huang
- a Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Ministry of Education (MOE) , School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology , Dalian , People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Zhang
- a Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Ministry of Education (MOE) , School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology , Dalian , People's Republic of China
| | - Jinhui Yang
- b Experiment Center of Chemistry , Dalian University of Technology , Dalian , People's Republic of China
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Cai J, Zheng P, Mahmood Q. Effect of cathode electron acceptors on simultaneous anaerobic sulfide and nitrate removal in microbial fuel cell. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2016; 73:947-954. [PMID: 26901739 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2015.570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The current investigation reports the effect of cathode electron acceptors on simultaneous sulfide and nitrate removal in two-chamber microbial fuel cells (MFCs). Potassium permanganate and potassium ferricyanide were common cathode electron acceptors and evaluated for substrate removal and electricity generation. The abiotic MFCs produced electricity through spontaneous electrochemical oxidation of sulfide. In comparison with abiotic MFC, the biotic MFC showed better ability for simultaneous nitrate and sulfide removal along with electricity generation. Keeping external resistance of 1,000 Ω, both MFCs showed good capacities for substrate removal where nitrogen and sulfate were the main end products. The steady voltage with potassium permanganate electrodes was nearly twice that of with potassium ferricyanide. Cyclic voltammetry curves confirmed that the potassium permanganate had higher catalytic activity than potassium ferricyanide. The potassium permanganate may be a suitable choice as cathode electron acceptor for enhanced electricity generation during simultaneous treatment of sulfide and nitrate in MFCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Cai
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, No. 18 Xuezheng Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province 310012, China E-mail:
| | - Ping Zheng
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qaisar Mahmood
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad, Pakistan
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Abbasi U, Jin W, Pervez A, Bhatti ZA, Tariq M, Shaheen S, Iqbal A, Mahmood Q. Anaerobic microbial fuel cell treating combined industrial wastewater: Correlation of electricity generation with pollutants. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2016; 200:1-7. [PMID: 26476157 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.09.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2015] [Revised: 09/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a new technology that not only generates energy but treats wastewater as well. A dual chamber MFC was operated under laboratory conditions. Wastewater samples from vegetable oil industries, metal works, glass and marble industries, chemical industries and combined industrial effluents were collected and each was treated for 98h in MFC. The treatment efficiency for COD in MFC was in range of 85-90% at hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 96h and had significant impact on wastewater treatment as well. The maximum voltage of 890mV was generated when vegetable oil industries discharge was treated with columbic efficiency of 5184.7C. The minimum voltage was produced by Glass House wastewater which was 520mV. There was positive significant co-relation between COD concentration and generated voltage. Further research should be focused on the organic contents of wastewater and various ionic species affecting voltage generation in MFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umara Abbasi
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
| | - Wang Jin
- College of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Arshid Pervez
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
| | - Zulfiqar Ahmad Bhatti
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
| | - Madiha Tariq
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
| | - Shahida Shaheen
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
| | - Akhtar Iqbal
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
| | - Qaisar Mahmood
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan.
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Kim BH, Lim SS, Daud WRW, Gadd GM, Chang IS. The biocathode of microbial electrochemical systems and microbially-influenced corrosion. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2015; 190:395-401. [PMID: 25976915 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.04.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The cathode reaction is one of the most important limiting factors in bioelectrochemical systems even with precious metal catalysts. Since aerobic bacteria have a much higher affinity for oxygen than any known abiotic cathode catalysts, the performance of a microbial fuel cell can be improved through the use of electrochemically-active oxygen-reducing bacteria acting as the cathode catalyst. These consume electrons available from the electrode to reduce the electron acceptors present, probably conserving energy for growth. Anaerobic bacteria reduce protons to hydrogen in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs). These aerobic and anaerobic bacterial activities resemble those catalyzing microbially-influenced corrosion (MIC). Sulfate-reducing bacteria and homoacetogens have been identified in MEC biocathodes. For sustainable operation, microbes in a biocathode should conserve energy during such electron-consuming reactions probably by similar mechanisms as those occurring in MIC. A novel hypothesis is proposed here which explains how energy can be conserved by microbes in MEC biocathodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung Hong Kim
- Fuel Cell Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Malaysia; School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150090, China; Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seongbuk-ku, Seoul 136-791, Republic of Korea
| | - Swee Su Lim
- Fuel Cell Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Malaysia; School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials, Merz Court, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
| | - Wan Ramli Wan Daud
- Fuel Cell Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Malaysia; Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Malaysia
| | - Geoffrey Michael Gadd
- Geomicrobiology Group, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK; Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Bioremediation, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
| | - In Seop Chang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 261 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 500-712, Republic of Korea
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