Terminal ileal stricture in Crohn's disease: treatment using a metallic enteral endoprosthesis

Interventional endoscopy in inflammatory bowel disease: a comprehensive review

Interventional endoscopy can play a key role in the multidisciplinary management of complex inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) as an adjunct to medical and surgical therapy. The primary role of interventional IBD (IIBD) includes the treatment of Crohn's disease-related stricture, fistula, and abscess. Endoscopic balloon dilation (EBD), endoscopic stricturotomy, and placement of endoscopic stents are different forms of endoscopic stricture therapy. EBD is the most widely used therapy whereas endoscopic stricturotomy has higher long-term efficacy than EBD. Fully covered and partially covered self-expanding metal stents are useful in long and refractory strictures whereas lumen-apposing metal stents can be used in short, and anastomotic strictures. Endoscopic fistula/abscess therapy includes endoscopic fistulotomy, seton placement, endoscopic ultrasound-guided drainage of rectal/pelvic abscess, and endoscopic injection of filling agents (fistula plug/glue/stem cell). Endoscopic seton placement and fistulotomy are mainly feasible in short, superficial, single tract fistula and in those with prior surgical seton placement. Similarly, endoscopic fistulotomy is usually feasible in short, superficial, single-tract fistula. Endoscopic closure therapies like over-the-scope clips, suturing, and self-expanding metal stent should be avoided for de novo/bowel to hollow organ fistulas. Other indications include management of postoperative complications in IBD such as management of surgical leaks and complications of pouchitis in ulcerative colitis. Additional indications include endoscopic resection of ulcerative colitis-associated neoplasia (by endoscopic mucosal resection, endoscopic submucosal dissection, and endoscopic full-thickness resection), retrieval of retained capsule endoscope, and control of bleeding. IIBD therapies can potentially act as a bridge between medical and surgical therapy for properly selected IBD patients.

Systematic Review of Endoscopic Management of Stricture, Fistula and Abscess in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Background: Interventional inflammatory bowel disease (IIBD) therapies can play a key role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) related stricture/fistula/abscess deferring or avoiding invasive surgery. Methods: A total of 112 studies pertaining to IIBD therapy for strictures/fistula/abscess between 2002 and December 2022 were included by searching Pubmed, Medline and Embase with a focus on technical/clinical success, recurrence, re-intervention and complications. Results: IIBD therapy for strictures include endoscopic balloon dilation (EBD), endoscopic stricturotomy (ES) and self-expanding metal stent (SEMS) placement. EBD is the primary therapy for short strictures while ES and SEMS can be used for refractory strictures. ES has higher long-term efficacy than EBD. SEMS is inferior to EBD although it can be useful in long, refractory strictures. Fistula therapy includes endoscopic incision and drainage (perianal fistula)/endoscopic seton (simple, low fistula) and endoscopic ultrasound-guided drainage (pelvic abscess). Fistulotomy can be done for short, superficial, single tract, bowel-bowel fistula. Endoscopic injection of filling agents (fistula plug/glue/stem cell) is feasible although durability is unknown. Endoscopic closure therapies like over-the-scope clips (OTSC), suturing and SEMS should be avoided for de-novo/bowel to hollow organ fistulas. Conclusion: IIBD therapies have the potential to act as a bridge between medical and surgical therapy for properly selected IBD-related stricture/fistula/abscess although future controlled studies are warranted.

Endoscopic Stenting for Inflammatory Bowel Disease Strictures

Strictures are among the most frequent complications in patients with Crohn's disease (CD), usually requiring a combined medical, surgical, and/or endoscopic approach to treatment. Currently, endoscopic balloon dilation (EBD) is the endoscopic treatment of choice, but its effectiveness is not universal, especially in the long term, and it is not free of complications. The technological evolution of stents in recent years has allowed their use in benign diseases of any origin and location, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The current scientific evidence regarding the use of stents in strictures in IBD is limited and it should not be considered the first option in endoscopic treatment. Self-expandable metal stents (SEMS), but no biodegradable stents (BS), can work in cases that are refractory to anterior endoscopic treatment with EBD, in cases in which EBD is not possible, and in cases with strictures of greater length.

Endoscopic Stenting in Crohn's Disease-related Strictures: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Crohn's disease (CD) is a chronic progressive condition that is complicated by intestinal or colonic stricture in nearly 30% of cases within 10 years of the initial diagnosis. Endoscopic balloon dilation (EBD) is associated with a risk of perforations and recurrence rates of up to 60% at 5 years. Endoscopic stenting has been used as an alternative to EBD, but data on its safety and efficacy are limited. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the outcomes of endoscopic stenting in CD-related strictures.

METHODS

A systematic and detailed search was run in January 2022 with the assistance of a medical librarian for studies reporting on outcomes of endoscopic stenting in CD-related strictures. Meta-analysis was performed using random-effects model, and results were expressed in terms of pooled proportions along with relevant 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

Nine studies with 163 patients were included in the final analysis. Self-expanding metal stents (SEMS) including both partial and fully covered were used in 7 studies, whereas biodegradable stents were used in 2 studies. Pooled rate of clinical success and technical success was 60.9% (95% CI, 51.6-69.5; I2 = 13%) and 93% (95% CI, 87.3-96.3; I2 = 0%), respectively. Repeat stenting was needed in 9.6% of patients (95% CI, 5.3-16.7; I2 = 0%), whereas pooled rate of spontaneous stent migration was 43.9% (95% CI, 11.4-82.7; I2 = 88%). Pooled incidence of overall adverse events, proximal stent migration, perforation, and abdominal pain were 15.7%, 6.4%, 2.7%, and 17.9%, respectively. Mean follow-up period ranged from 3 months to 69 months.

DISCUSSION

Endoscopic stenting in CD-related strictures is a safe technique that can be performed with technical ease, albeit with a limited clinical success. Postprocedure abdominal pain and proximal stent migration are some of the common adverse events reported.

Futuristic Developments and Applications in Endoluminal Stenting

Endoscopic stenting is a well-established option for the treatment of malignant obstruction, temporary management of benign strictures, and sealing transmural defects, as well as drainage of pancreatic fluid collections and biliary obstruction. In recent years, in addition to expansion in indications for endoscopic stenting, considerable strides have been made in stent technology, and several types of devices with advanced designs and materials are continuously being developed. In this review, we discuss the important developments in stent designs and novel indications for endoluminal and transluminal stenting. Our discussion specifically focuses on (i) biodegradable as well as (ii) irradiating and drug-eluting stents for esophageal, gastroduodenal, biliary, and colonic indications, (iii) endoscopic stenting in inflammatory bowel disease, and (iv) lumen-apposing metal stent.

The Pathogenesis and Clinical Management of Stricturing Crohn Disease

Stricturing of the gastrointestinal tract is a common complication in Crohn disease and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among this population. The inflammatory process initiates fibrosis, leading to aberrant wound healing and excess deposition of extracellular matrix proteins. Our understanding of this process has grown and encompasses cellular mechanisms, epigenetic modifications, and inherent genetic predisposition toward fibrosis. Although medications can improve inflammation, there is still no drug to attenuate scar formation. As such, management of stricturing disease requires a multidisciplinary and individualized approach including medical management, therapeutic endoscopy, and surgery. This review details the current understanding regarding the pathogenesis, detection, and management of stricturing Crohn disease.

Strictures in Crohn's Disease: From Pathophysiology to Treatment

Despite recent advances aimed to treat transmural inflammation in Crohn's disease (CD) patients, the progression to a structuring behavior still represents an issue for clinicians. As inflammation becomes chronic and severe, the attempt to repair damaged tissue can result in an excessive production of extracellular matrix components and deposition of connective tissue, thus favoring the formation of strictures. No specific and accurate clinical predictors or diagnostic tools for intestinal fibrosis exist, and to date, no genetic or serological marker is in routine clinical use. Therefore, intestinal fibrosis is usually diagnosed when it becomes clinically evident and strictures have already occurred. Anti-fibrotic agents such as tranilast, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonists, rho kinase inhibitors, and especially mesenchymal stem cell therapy have provided interesting results, but most of the evidence has been derived from studies performed in vitro. Therefore, current therapy of fibrotic strictures relies mainly on endoscopic and surgical procedures. Although its long-term outcomes may be debated, endoscopic balloon dilation appears to be the safest and most effective approach to treat appropriately selected strictures. The use of endoscopic stricturotomy is currently limited by the expertise needed to perform it and by the few data available in the literature. Some good results have been achieved by the positioning of self-expandable metal stents (SEMS). However, there is no concordance regarding the type of stent to use and for how long it should be left in place. The development of new specific SEMS may lead to better outcomes and to an increased use of this alternative in CD-related strictures.

Feasibility and safety of self-expandable metal stent in nonmalignant disease of the lower gastrointestinal tract

In recent years, self-expandable metal stents (SEMSs) have been employed to treat benign gastrointestinal strictures secondary to several conditions: Acute diverticulitis, radiation colitis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and postanastomotic leakages and stenosis. Other applications include endometriosis and fistulas of the lower gastrointestinal tract. Although it may be technically feasible to proceed to stenting in the aforementioned benign diseases of the lower gastrointestinal tract, the outcome has been reported to be poor. In fact, in some settings (such as complicated diverticulitis and postsurgical anastomotic strictures), stenting seems to have a limited evidence-based benefit as a bridge to surgery, while in other settings (such as endometriosis, IBD, radiation colitis, etc.), even society guidelines are not able to guide the endoscopist through decisional algorithms for SEMS placement. The aim of this narrative paper is to review the scientific evidence regarding the use of SEMSs in nonmalignant diseases of the lower gastrointestinal tract, both in adult and pediatric settings.

Role of interventional inflammatory bowel disease in the era of biologic therapy: a position statement from the Global Interventional IBD Group

Interventional (or therapeutic) inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) endoscopy has an expanding role in the treatment of disease and surgical adverse events. Endoscopic therapy has been explored and used in the management of strictures, fistulas/abscesses, colitis-associated neoplasia, postsurgical acute or chronic leaks, and obstructions. The endoscopic therapeutic modalities include balloon dilation, stricturotomy, stent placement, fistulotomy, fistula injection and clipping, sinusotomy, EMR, and endoscopic submucosal dissection. With a better understanding of the disease course of IBD, improved long-term impact of medical therapy, and advances in endoscopic technology, we can foresee interventional IBD becoming an integrated part of the multidisciplinary approach to patients with complex IBD.

The role of stents in the treatment of Crohn's disease strictures

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Stenosis is one of the most frequent local complications in Crohn's disease (CD). Surgery is not the ideal treatment because of the high rate of postoperative recurrence. Endoscopic balloon dilation (EBD) currently is the current treatment of choice for short strictures amenable to the procedure. However, it is not applicable or effective in all the cases, and it is not without related complications. Our goal was to summarize the published information regarding the use and the role of the stents in the treatment of CD stricture. A Medline search was performed on the terms "stricture," "stenosis," "stent" and "Crohn's disease."

RESULTS

a total of 19 publications met our search criteria for an overall number of 65 patients. Placing a self-expanding metal stent (SEMS) may be a safe and effective alternative to EBD and/or surgical intervention in the treatment of short stenosis in patients with CD. Indications are the same as those for EBD. In addition, SEMS may be useful in stenosis refractory to EBD and may be suitable in the treatment of longer or more complex strictures that cannot be treated by EBD. With the current information, it seems that the best treatment option is the placement of a fully covered stent for a mean time of 4 weeks. Regarding the use of biodegradable stents, the information is limited and showing poor results.

CONCLUSIONS

the use of stents in the treatment of strictures in CD should be taken into account either as a first endoscopic therapy or in case of EBD failure.

Endoscopic treatment with self-expanding metal stents for Crohn’s disease strictures

BACKGROUND

Balloon dilation (with or without steroid injection) is the endoscopic treatment of choice for short strictures in Crohn's disease (CD). The placement of a stent has only rarely been reported in this setting, and it may be a good alternative.

AIM

To describe the efficacy of temporary placement of a self-expanding metallic stent (SEMS) in the endoscopic treatment of symptomatic strictures in CD.

METHODS

We included 17 CD patients treated with SEMS (4 partially covered SEMS and 21 fully covered SEMS) for symptomatic strictures refractory to medical and/or endoscopic treatment.

RESULTS

We placed 25 stents in 17 patients with stenosis (<8 cm), in the colon and in the ileocolonic anastomosis. In two cases, two stents were placed in the same endoscopic procedure. All except three cases had previously been unsuccessfully treated with endoscopic dilatation. The stents were maintained for an average of 28 days (1–112). The treatment was effective in 64.7% of the patients after a mean follow-up time of 60 weeks (5–266). In four cases, removal of the stents was technically difficult due to stent impaction (moderate adverse events-AEs) and one patient had a proximal stent migration requiring delayed surgery (severe AE).

CONCLUSION

The placement of self-expanding metallic stent in Crohn's disease maintained over a period of 4 weeks is a safe, effective treatment for strictures refractory to medical treatment and/or balloon dilatation, and might be an alternative endoscopic

Safety and efficacy of extractible self-expandable metal stents in the treatment of Crohn's disease intestinal strictures: a prospective pilot study

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic management of Crohn's disease (CD) intestinal strictures with balloon dilation is effective; however, recurrences are frequent and require further dilations or surgery. The use of extractible metallic stents may be as effective as balloon dilation with fewer recurrences. The aim was to investigate in a prospective pilot study the feasibility and clinical effectiveness of the use of extractible stents in the treatment of CD intestinal strictures.

METHODS

In two tertiary referral centers, quiescent CD patients except for obstructive symptoms associated with intestinal stenosis of less than 50 mm length on enterography were eligible for transitory stent placement, initially planned to be retrieved after 8 weeks, which was secondarily reduced to 4 weeks after patient 3.

RESULTS

Eleven patients (six males, five females, median age 34 years [range 18-66]) were prospectively included. The sites of intestinal stenosis were an ileocolonic anastomosis, an ileosigmoidic anastomosis, and the surgically untreated terminal ileum in eight, one, and two patients, respectively. Stent placement was technically successful in 10 patients. Obstructive symptoms were relieved in 6 out of 10 patients. Two patients needed surgery related to the procedure. Six downstream migrations were observed. Only one patient could have the stent extracted as scheduled on day 28 and remains symptom-free after 73 months of follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Even if stenting appears an effective technique in treating symptomatic CD intestinal strictures, the procedure is associated with a prohibitively high rate of spontaneous migrations and complications.

Mid-gut stents

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Gastrointestinal stents offer a feasible, safe, cost effective, and minimally invasive method for reestablishing luminal patency. Previous clinical reports and systematic reviews have demonstrated the role of enteral stents in both the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract. Over the last two decades, the rapid development of deep enteroscopy in concert with the evolution of various stent devices/deployment mechanisms has enabled placement of enteral stents in the mid-gut; hence this has been increasingly reported. The present article focuses on stenting in the mid-gut, a relatively novel term, referring to the small bowel between the ampulla and the ileocecal valve.

RECENT FINDINGS

Mid-gut stenting is technically more difficult than stenting in the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract, and therefore requires particular expertise, restricting its widespread utility. In total, 86 reported cases involving mid-gut stent deployment, by either endoscopic approaches (80.2%) or percutaneous approaches (19.8%), have been published. Although limited, these results have demonstrated that mid-gut stenting is reliable, effective, and a minimally invasive method for palliating malignant obstruction, as well as sealing leaks and fistulae.

SUMMARY

This article reviews the current status of mid-gut stenting, including endoscopic technique. The article also speculates about the potential for future advances within this field.

Endoprosthetic management of refractory ileocolonic anastomotic strictures after resection for Crohn's disease: report of nine-year follow-up and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

The role of endoluminal stenting in benign obstruction, especially for Crohn's disease (CD), is controversial, with limited data and widely disparate outcomes. The purpose of this study was to determine the long-term efficacy and safety of this technology in the treatment of fibrostenotic CD and to review the existing literature on this topic.

METHODS

We undertook a retrospective review of all patients undergoing endoluminal stenting for CD strictures at our institution from 2001 to 2010. Outcome measures included technical success, clinical improvement, duration of stent and luminal patency, and need for re-intervention.

RESULTS

Five patients underwent this procedure with a 100% rate of technical and an 80% rate of clinical success. Mean follow-up was 28 months (range 3 weeks to 109 months) and mean long-term luminal patency was 34.8 months (range 4.5-109 months). There was one complication involving reobstruction which required surgical intervention and no mortalities.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoluminal stenting of CD strictures is a safe and effective alternative to surgery which can provide lasting benefit in select patients. Further studies are necessary to clarify the full impact of this technology on long-term management of this complex disease.

[Endoscopic management of luminal stenosis in inflammatory bowel disease]

Luminal stenosis is frequent in Crohn's disease (CD) due to transmural involvement. Before any endoscopic treatment, the presence of neoplastic stenosis should always be excluded. Endoscopic balloon dilatation has been used in several series to treat benign stenosis, mainly in CD with involvement of the distal ileon, colon or surgical anastomosis, with success rates of 51% to 85%, although recurrence is high. The concomitant use of injected steroids (triamcinolone) after endoscopic dilatation produces longer-lasting results, but there are few published reports. In patients with luminal stenosis refractory to conventional endoscopy, three emerging techniques may be useful: self-expanding metallic stents, biodegradable endoprostheses and intralesional infliximab injection.

Use of bio-degradable stents for the treatment of refractory benign gastrointestinal stenoses

Bio-degradable stents are be made of different synthetic polymers (like polylactide or polyglycolide) or their co-polymers (polydioxanone). They can be used for treating benign stenoses of the small and large intestine, particularly in Crohn's disease. Endoscopic introduction of bio-degradable stents into small and large intestinal stenoses is feasible and relatively simple. Initial results are encouraging and the complication rate is low. However, there are still some difficulties that need to be overcome. The rate of early stent migration is still rather high (up to one third of patients). This might be solved by changes in the shape or rigidity of the stents as well as by further improvement in the design. Proof of long-term efficacy and safety requires further studies.

Operative management of small bowel Crohn's disease

Despite advances in medical treatment, most patients who have Crohn's disease of the small intestine need surgery at some point during the course of their disease. Surgery is currently indicated for intractable disease and complications of the disease (strictures, abscesses, fistulas, hemorrhage). There is increasing interest in nonsurgical and minimal access strategies of dealing with complicated disease, however. These new approaches may enable postponement of surgery to a more favorable time, or conversion of a two-stage procedure involving a stoma to a one-stage resection with anastomosis. A continuing challenge is prevention of disease recurrence postoperatively.

The patient with recurrent (sub) obstruction due to Crohn's disease

Stricturing Crohn's disease (CD) occurs in 12-54% of the CD patient population and is associated with significant morbidity and impaired quality of life. The detailed pathophysiology of stricture formation has not been fully elucidated, but is primarily associated with luminal narrowing secondary to inflammation and the fibrosis that ensues during mucosal healing. The diagnosis of stricturing disease is based on clinical signs and symptoms along with imaging modalities. The advantages and shortcomings of each imaging modality are discussed. Treatment options are based on the differentiation between inflammatory versus fibrous-predominant strictures; whereas the former can potentially be managed with conservative medical treatment, the latter necessitates a mechanical solution through endoscopy or surgery. Indications, contra-indications and success rates of the different therapeutic approaches are discussed.

Repeated coaxial colonic stenting in the palliative management of benign colonic obstruction

In inflammatory bowel disease, strictures of the colon, causing bowel obstruction, is not uncommon. Usually an operative procedure can deal with these strictures. We describe a case of an unfit patient with pulmonary malignancy having a Crohn's stricture of the recto-sigmoid junction in which repeated coaxial placement of self-expanding metallic stents eliminated the need to perform an operation. This is the first report of multiple coaxial colonic stenting. It shows that there is a place for stents in selected cases of inflammatory bowel disease with a limited life expectancy and that repeated colonic stenting makes colonic stenting possible also in patients requiring stents for longer time periods.