Predictors of HIV disclosure among untested, HIV-negative and HIV-positive Australian men who had anal intercourse with their most recent casual male sex partner

Decision-Making for HIV AIDS Prevention: Altruism and the Moral Norm

The purpose of this enquiry was to understand how gay men form and maintain their attitudes toward HIV transmission preventative behaviors. Autobiographical life histories of sixteen gay men showed that once they acquired knowledge of preventative behavior they consistently adhered to that behavior. They adhered because of fear of HIV infection and because they held a moral norm that obligated them to behave altruistically (Schwartz, 1977) to protect not only themselves, but also their sex partners, loved ones, and their positive self-evaluation. They saw their HIV negative status, and their adherence, as pre-requisite and enabler for achieving their goals in life. Dick and Basu's (1994) Framework for Customer Loyalty, a commercial marketing communications theoretical framework, explains development and maintenance of these men's loyalty (their consistent adherence). This understanding, within a marketing communications framework, will inform development of social marketing communications aiming to increase adherence to behaviors that prevent HIV transmission.

The effect of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) on negotiating casual sex between gay men: disclosure, assumptions, and communication

BACKGROUND

The disclosure of HIV status and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use can be important in the negotiation of safe sex. With the rapid uptake of PrEP in Australia, norms and expectations about discussion and disclosure may have changed.

METHODS

We explored the disclosure of PrEP use, HIV status and communication with sex partners by HIV-negative gay men in Sydney, Australia. We conducted semi-structured interviews from October 2017 to May 2018 and analysed data using a codebook thematic analysis approach.

RESULTS

Participants had a variety of expectations of what they should tell their partners and what they expected in return. For some participants, PrEP had negated the need for any discussion about HIV. Many participants assumed their partners would find information about their HIV status or PrEP use on their online profiles or that partners would ask, if necessary.

CONCLUSIONS

Building a stronger, shared understanding among gay men that disclosure and discussion no longer automatically occur before sexual encounters may be useful.

The association between HIV disclosure, spousal testing and unprotected vaginal intercourse within marriage among HIV positive married MSM in China

Disclosure of HIV status can encourage spouses of people diagnosed with HIV to prioritize HIV prevention. However, few studies have reported the HIV disclosure status of married men who have sex with men (MSM) and their female spouses. The purpose of this study was to describe the prevalence of HIV disclosure, and whether it was associated with spouses' HIV testing uptake and unprotected vaginal intercourse within marriage for MSM living with HIV (HIV + MSM) in China. A cross-sectional study was conducted in three Chinese cities. Of 309 participants, only 31.1% of men had disclosed their HIV status to spouses. About 80% of participants reported that their spouses had been tested for HIV. A small proportion of men (9.1%) had unprotected sex with their spouse after HIV diagnosis. Multivariate analyses indicated HIV disclosure was positively associated with HIV testing uptake of spouses, but there was no significant association between HIV disclosure and unprotected marital sexual behaviors for HIV + MSM. The findings indicated that HIV disclosure to spouses is uncommon among married HIV + MSM in China, and HIV disclosure is associated with increased uptake of HIV testing among spouses of MSM, but it does not decrease the unprotected sexual behaviors in marriage.

A Behavioral Cascade of HIV Seroadaptation Among US Men Who Have Sex with Men in the Era of PrEP and U = U

Seroadaptive behaviors help reduce HIV risk for some men who have sex with men (MSM), and have been well documented across MSM populations. Advancements in biomedical prevention have changed the contexts in which seroadaptive behaviors occur. We thus sought to estimate and compare the prevalence of four stages of the "seroadaptive cascade" by PrEP use in the recent era: knowledge of own serostatus, knowledge of partner serostatus; serosorting (matching by status), and condomless anal intercourse. Serosorting overall appeared to remain common, especially with casual and one-time partners. Although PrEP use did not impact status discussion, it did impact serosorting and the likelihood of having condomless anal intercourse. For respondents not diagnosed with HIV and not on PrEP, condomless anal intercourse occurred in just over half of relationships with HIV-positive partners who were not on treatment. Biomedical prevention has intertwined with rather than supplanted seroadaptive behaviors, while contexts involving neither persist.

The need to know: HIV status disclosure expectations and practices among non-HIV-positive gay and bisexual men in Australia

Although there is evidence of increasing overall rates of HIV status disclosure among gay and bisexual men, little is known about men's disclosure expectations and practices. In this study, we investigate the importance non-HIV-positive men in Australia vest in knowing the HIV status of their sexual partners, and the extent to which they restrict sex to partners of the same HIV status, and their HIV disclosure expectations. Data were collected through a national, online self-report survey. Of the 1044 men included in the study, 914 were HIV negative and 130 were untested. Participants completed the assessment of socio-demographic characteristics, HIV status preferences, and disclosure expectations and practices. Participants also completed reliable multi-item measures of perceived risk of HIV transmission, expressed HIV-related stigma, and engagement with the gay community and the community of people living with HIV. A quarter (25.9%) of participants wanted to know the HIV status of all sexual partners, and one-third (37.2%) restricted sex to partners of similar HIV status. Three quarters (76.3%) expected HIV-positive partners to disclosure their HIV status before sex, compared to 41.6% who expected HIV-negative men to disclose their HIV status. Less than half (41.7%) of participants reported that they consistently disclosed their HIV status to sexual partners. Multivariate linear regression analysis identified various covariates of disclosure expectations and practices, in particular of disclosure expectations regarding HIV-positive men. Men who expected HIV-positive partners to disclose their HIV status before sex more often lived outside capital cities, were less educated, were less likely to identify as gay, perceived more risk of HIV transmission from a range of sexual practices, were less engaged with the community of people living with HIV, and expressed more stigma towards HIV-positive people. These findings suggest that an HIV-status divide is emerging or already exists among gay men in Australia. HIV-negative and untested men who are most likely to sexually exclude HIV-positive men are less connected to the HIV epidemic and less educated about HIV risk and prevention.

HIV serostatus knowledge and serostatus disclosure with the most recent anal intercourse partner in a European MSM sample recruited in 13 cities: results from the Sialon-II study

Background

Knowledge of HIV status can be important in reducing the risk of HIV exposure. In a European sample of men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM), we aimed to identify factors associated with HIV serostatus disclosure to the most recent anal intercourse (AI) partner. We also aimed to describe the impact of HIV serostatus disclosure on HIV exposure risks.

Methods

During 2013 and 2014, 4901 participants were recruited for the bio-behavioural Sialon-II study in 13 European cities. Behavioural data were collected with a self-administered paper questionnaire. Biological specimens were tested for HIV antibodies. Factors associated with HIV serostatus disclosure with the most recent AI partner were examined using bivariate and multilevel multivariate logistic regression analysis. We also describe the role of serostatus disclosure for HIV exposure of the most recent AI partner.

Results

Thirty-five percent (n = 1450) of the study participants reported mutual serostatus disclosure with their most recent AI partner or disclosed having HIV to their partner. Most of these disclosures occurred between steady partners (74%, n = 1077). In addition to the type of partner and HIV diagnosis status, other factors positively associated with HIV serostatus disclosure in the multilevel multivariate logistic regression model were recent testing, no condom use, and outness regarding sexual orientation. Disclosure rates were lowest in three south-eastern European cities.

Following condom use (51%, n = 2099), HIV serostatus disclosure (20%, n = 807) was the second most common prevention approach with the most recent AI partner, usually resulting in serosorting. A potential HIV exposure risk for the partner was reported by 26% (111/432) of HIV antibody positive study participants. In 18% (20/111) of exposure episodes, an incorrect HIV serostatus was unknowingly communicated. Partner exposures were equally distributed between steady and non-steady partners.

Conclusions

The probability of HIV exposure through condomless AI is substantially lower after serostatus disclosure compared to non-disclosure. Incorrect knowledge of one’s HIV status contributes to a large proportion of HIV exposures amongst European MSM. Maintaining or improving condom use for anal intercourse with non-steady partners, frequent testing to update HIV serostatus awareness, and increased serostatus disclosure particularly between steady partners are confirmed as key aspects for reducing HIV exposures amongst European MSM.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12879-017-2814-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Shame and blame and its influence on male gay (chaay rak chaay) quality of life in Bangkok Thailand: a health promotion community nursing perspective

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore gay male informant experiences of discrimination and stigma in Bangkok from a health promotion community nursing perspective.

Design/methodology/approach

Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 30 informants and included field work observations at eight entertainment venues. Data analysis utilised an inductive thematic approach.

Findings

Key themes that emerged from the data were related to communication, particularly the use of smart phone applications; lack of privacy in health services; sexual exploitation by entertainment venues; and concerns about coming out safely to protect self-esteem and mental health.

Originality/value

Development of key mental health promotion messages based on a greater understanding and knowledge of discrimination and stigma may help to reduce negative behaviour and stigmatisation towards Thai gay men in Bangkok.

HIV Status Communication with Sex Partners and Associated Factors Among High-Risk MSM and Transgender Women in Lima, Peru

Men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women (TW) are key populations in the HIV epidemic. HIV status communication between sex partners can inform decisions regarding sexual behavior. MSM and TW were asked about HIV status communication with sex partners at baseline, 9- and 18-months. GEE models assessed associations with HIV status communication at baseline using prevalence ratios (PRs) and longitudinally using odds ratios (ORs). At baseline, those who had previously had an HIV test, disclosed their HIV status to 42 % of their sex partners. HIV status communication was associated with knowing their sex partner's HIV status at baseline (aPR 5.20) and longitudinally (aOR 1.86). HIV positivity at baseline was negatively associated with HIV status communication during follow-up (aOR 0.55). All reported aPRs and aORs have p < 0.05. Interventions promoting HIV status communication and more frequent HIV testing should be explored as current efforts are insufficient.

Social and Behavioural Correlates of HIV Testing Among Australian Gay and Bisexual Men in Regular Relationships

In this study we sought to identify the social and behavioural characteristics of Australian gay and bisexual men who had and had not tested for HIV during their current relationship. The results were based on 2012 and 2013 data collected from ongoing cross-sectional and community-based surveys held in six Australian states and territories. One thousand five hundred and sixty-one non-HIV-positive men reported that they were in a primary relationship. The majority of gay and bisexual men in primary relationships had tested for HIV during the relationship (73.4 %). Among men who had not tested during the relationship, almost half of these men had never tested for HIV. As untested men within relationships are potentially at risk of acquiring and transmitting HIV to their partners unknowingly, it is important to promote HIV testing to these men.

Effects of a Quasi-Randomized Web-Based Intervention on Risk Behaviors and Treatment Seeking Among HIV-Positive Men Who Have Sex With Men in Chengdu, China

The men who have sex with men (MSM) population in China has experienced a recent increase in HIV incidence. Due to the dual stigma and discrimination towards homosexuality and HIV infection, most MSM living with HIV/AIDS are hard to reach by offline intervention initiatives. We recruited HIV-positive MSM participants in Chengdu, China and assessed whether they disclosed their HIV status to partners, motivated a partner to receive testing, used condoms consistently, or initiated antiretroviral therapy. Participants were quasi-randomized to either the intervention or control arm. The intervention group was given instructions for an online program with four modules: an information exchange website, a bulletin board system, individualized online counseling with trained peer educators, and an animation game. All participants were re-assessed at 6 months. The study enrolled 202 HIV-positive MSM. The intervention group had significant increases in disclosing their HIV status to their partners (76.0% vs 61.2%, P=0.0388) and motivating partners to accept HIV testing (42.3% vs 25.5%, P=0.0156) compared with the control group, but there were no between-group differences in receiving early treatment or using condoms consistently. We found that a web-based intervention targeting HIV-positive MSM was an effective tool in increasing the uptake of HIV testing within this high-risk population.

Developing a conceptual framework of seroadaptive behaviors in HIV-diagnosed men who have sex with men

BACKGROUND

Seroadaptive behaviors are strategies employed by men who have sex with men (MSM) to reduce the transmission risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It has been suggested that they contribute to the increasing diagnoses of sexually transmitted infections in HIV-diagnosed MSM. To understand the context in which the reemerging sexually transmitted infections appear, we developed a social epidemiological model incorporating the multiple factors influencing seroadaptive behaviors.

METHODS

A literature review of seroadaptive behaviors in HIV-diagnosed MSM was conducted. The literature was synthesized using a social epidemiological perspective.

RESULTS

Seroadaptive behaviors are adopted by MSM in high-income countries and are a way for HIV-diagnosed men to manage and enjoy their sexual lives. Influences are apparent at structural, community, interpersonal, and intrapersonal levels. There is little evidence of whether and when the behavior forms part of a premeditated strategy; it seems dependent on the social context and on time since HIV diagnosis. Social rules of HIV disclosure and perception of risk depend on the setting where partners are encountered.

CONCLUSIONS

Seroadaptive behaviors are strongly context dependent and can reduce or increase transmission risk for different infectious diseases. Further data collection and mathematical modeling can help us explore the specific conditions in more detail.

Methodological challenges in collecting social and behavioural data regarding the HIV epidemic among gay and other men who have sex with men in Australia

BACKGROUND

Behavioural surveillance and research among gay and other men who have sex with men (GMSM) commonly relies on non-random recruitment approaches. Methodological challenges limit their ability to accurately represent the population of adult GMSM. We compared the social and behavioural profiles of GMSM recruited via venue-based, online, and respondent-driven sampling (RDS) and discussed their utility for behavioural surveillance.

METHODS

Data from four studies were selected to reflect each recruitment method. We compared demographic characteristics and the prevalence of key indicators including sexual and HIV testing practices obtained from samples recruited through different methods, and population estimates from respondent-driven sampling partition analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, the socio-demographic profile of GMSM was similar across samples, with some differences observed in age and sexual identification. Men recruited through time-location sampling appeared more connected to the gay community, reported a greater number of sexual partners, but engaged in less unprotected anal intercourse with regular (UAIR) or casual partners (UAIC). The RDS sample overestimated the proportion of HIV-positive men and appeared to recruit men with an overall higher number of sexual partners. A single-website survey recruited a sample with characteristics which differed considerably from the population estimates with regards to age, ethnically diversity and behaviour. Data acquired through time-location sampling underestimated the rates of UAIR and UAIC, while RDS and online sampling both generated samples that underestimated UAIR. Simulated composite samples combining recruits from time-location and multi-website online sampling may produce characteristics more consistent with the population estimates, particularly with regards to sexual practices.

CONCLUSION

Respondent-driven sampling produced the sample that was most consistent to population estimates, but this methodology is complex and logistically demanding. Time-location and online recruitment are more cost-effective and easier to implement; using these approaches in combination may offer the potential to recruit a more representative sample of GMSM.

Counselling about HIV serological status disclosure: nursing practice or law enforcement? a Foucauldian reflection

Recently, focus groups and qualitative interviews with nurses who provide frontline care for persons living with HIV highlighted the contentiousness surrounding the seemingly innocuous activity of counselling clients about HIV-status disclosure, hereafter disclosure counselling. These empirical studies highlighted that while some nurses felt they should instruct clients to disclose their HIV-positive status if HIV transmission were possible, other nurses were equally adamant that such counselling was outside the nursing scope of practice. A review of these opposing perceptions about disclosure counselling, including an examination of the empirical evidence which supports each point, revealed that the dichotomous arguments needed to be nuanced. The empirical evidence about serostatus disclosure neither supported nor refuted either of these assertions; rather, it substantiated parts of each. To create this understanding, both empirical and theoretical works are used. First, the results of empirical studies about serostatus disclosure, or lack thereof and HIV transmission is presented; as part of this, Marks and Crepaz's HIV disclosure and exposure framework is examined. Second, the work of Michel Foucault on disciplinary and pastoral power is drawn from. The outcome is a nuanced understanding about the interrelationships between disclosure counselling and nursing practice and a final interpretation about what this understanding means for public health practice.

Mutual HIV disclosure among HIV-negative men who have sex with men in Beijing, China, 2010

HIV is rising rapidly among Chinese men who have sex with men (MSM). Discussion of HIV status between sexual partners is potentially a key prevention behavior. It is unclear if HIV-negative Chinese MSM talk about HIV and disclose their HIV status with sexual partners. Understanding the correlates of disclosure among this population could provide insight into developing disclosure-based interventions. We conducted a respondent driven sampling based study of 500 MSM in Beijing. A total of 332 men had a previous HIV-negative test result and thus considered themselves to be HIV-negative and were included in our analysis of disclosure. Equal numbers of these men reported talking about HIV and disclosing their HIV status to at least one sexual partner. MSM who disclosed were more likely to be living with a main partner. No other demographic characteristics were associated with disclosure in bivariate analysis. We also used data on up to three sexual partners per participant to examine disclosure on the partnership level. Main partnerships, meeting partners at bars/clubs, sometimes using alcohol before sex in a partnership, and usually having sex at home compared to other venues were associated with disclosure. Using generalized estimating equation analysis to characterize individuals from their partnership data, we found only having at least one main partnership and knowing people who were infected with HIV to be associated with a participant being a discloser. Interventions that wish to harness discussion of HIV and HIV status among Chinese MSM will need to focus on moving these discussions towards having them with casual partners.

Sexual behavior and HIV testing among bisexual men: a nationwide comparison of Australian bisexual-identifying and gay-identifying men

Men who have sex with men (MSM) are typically studied as though they were a homogeneous population. This has resulted in a lack of knowledge about the sexual health and behavior of bisexual men as distinct from gay men. In this study, patterns of sexual behavior and rates of HIV testing were compared between 854 gay-identifying and 164 bisexual-identifying men who participated in an Australian nationwide online survey. Approximately half of both groups engaged in unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) at their most recent sexual encounter, but bisexual-identifying men were more likely to have had sex with a partner who was either serodiscordant or with whom their seroconcordance was unknown. Despite these patterns, only 62% of bisexual-identifying men had ever been tested for HIV compared to 84% of gay-identifying men. Multivariate logistic regression focused on rates of UAI and HIV testing among bisexual-identifying men. Patterns were similar across all age groups and educational backgrounds. However, bisexual-identifying men were less likely to engage in UAI with a casual partner and were more likely to have been tested for HIV if they had multiple partners or had disclosed their sexual orientation to their social networks. In all, these data reveal important differences between gay- and bisexual-identifying men, particularly with regard to HIV testing, and highlight a need for HIV prevention strategies to focus more strategically on finding ways of promoting safer sex and HIV testing among all MSM.

Gay men's use of condoms with casual partners depends on the extent of their prior acquaintance

Unprotected anal intercourse with casual partners (UAIC) is the strongest predictor of HIV incidence among gay men. Familiarity between sex partners has been associated with likelihood to engage in UAIC, but the decision to use condoms with partners who are previously acquainted is complex and multifaceted. Using data from the Pleasure and Sexual Health survey 2009, we investigated the association between aspects of familiarity with casual partners and disclosure of HIV serostatus. Compared with occasions when they engaged in protected anal intercourse (PAIC), when men engaged in UAIC they were more likely to report having previously met their partners (PAIC 45.9%; UAIC 54.9%), knowing them very well (PAIC 7.9%; UAIC 19.7%), and having previously had sex with them (PAIC 32.2%; UAIC 44.8%) (McNemar P < 0.001). Men were also more likely to disclose their HIV serostatus to their casual partners on occasions of UAIC, were more confident they knew their partner’s HIV serostatus and trusted them more. Overall, UAIC was associated with both the broad concept of ‘familiarity’ (composed of elements of prior acquaintance and trust) and HIV disclosure. When men engage in UAIC without some prior familiarity, disclosure of HIV serostatus, or confidence and trust in their partners, they are probably at greater risk than on occasions when they engage in UAIC with partners with whom they do have these qualities. However, for some men, their trust in knowing specific details about their partners may not always be well-informed or reliable. These different circumstances are challenging for HIV prevention work.

The converging and diverging characteristics of HIV-positive and HIV-negative gay men in the Australian Gay Community Periodic Surveys, 2000-2009

To assess the changing health promotion needs of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive gay men in Australia, we analysed the social and behavioural characteristics of HIV-positive men in the Australian Gay Community Periodic Surveys. We looked at change over time in the characteristics of HIV-positive men (from 2000-2001 to 2008-2009) and compared HIV-positive men with their HIV-negative peers within each time period. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to assess independent changes over time within each HIV status group. A total of 21,620 responses were included in the analyses; 10,537 in 2000-2001 and 11,083 in 2008-2009. Between the two time periods, HIV-positive and HIV-negative men became more similar in the following areas: paid employment, sexual identity, number of male sex partners, the likelihood of having a regular male partner and having a seroconcordant regular male partner. The two groups diverged in these areas: age, ethnicity, educational level, social engagement with gay men, types of relationship with regular male partners, likelihood of unprotected anal intercourse with casual male partners and likelihood of HIV disclosure to casual male partners. Workforce participation and educational attainment have improved among HIV-positive gay men since 2000, but they still lag behind their HIV-negative peers in these areas. Because HIV-positive men are an ageing cohort, support services will need to increasingly address issues of HIV, sexuality and ageing with HIV-positive men. The increase in unprotected anal intercourse and HIV disclosure with casual partners means that education and support services will increasingly need to address effective HIV disclosure and non-condom-based risk reduction strategies with both HIV-positive and HIV-negative gay men.

Gay men are less likely to use condoms with casual sex partners they know 'well'

Health in Men (HIM) was an open cohort study of 1,427 HIV-negative homosexual men in Sydney. The majority of respondents' unprotected anal intercourse (UAIC) events were with partners whose HIV status they did not know. Nonetheless, with casual partners with whom they engaged in UAIC, respondents indicated that they knew 'well' 28.9% of the HIV-negative partners and 26.2% of HIV-positive partners, but only 7.6% of the HIV status unknown partners. Respondents were more likely to have engaged in UAIC with partners they knew well (McNemar P < 0.001). The challenge for HIV prevention is that many gay men's decisions about condom use may be driven as much by their relationship with individual partners as their commitment to 'safe sex'.

Changes in gay men's participation in gay community life: implications for HIV surveillance and research

Successful antiretroviral treatments, achievements in gay acceptance and human rights, and internet use have prompted changes in gay socialising which create potential challenges for engaging with gay men for HIV surveillance and research. We used data from the Australian behavioural surveillance and explored (i) the relationship between community engagement and HIV related practices, and (ii) time trends in gay men's engagement with the gay community. Analyses were conducted using log-binomial regression and chi-square test for trend. The proportion of men who socialized mainly with gay men declined and the Internet use to connect with sex partners increased over time. Gay social engagement was associated with HIV positive serostatus, unprotected anal intercourse with regular partners and a high frequency of HIV/STI testing. Our findings indicate a shift in how gay men socialise and find partners. We discuss the challenges for ongoing engagement with gay men for behavioural surveillance and HIV research.

HIV testing, gay community involvement and internet use: social and behavioural correlates of HIV testing among Australian men who have sex with men

A significant minority of Australian men who have sex with men (MSM) have never been tested for HIV and many men do not test as often as recommended. Using data from 1770 HIV-negative and untested MSM collected in a national, online survey, we compared men who had never tested for HIV with those who had tested over 12 months ago and men who had tested over 12 months ago with those that had tested in the past year. Two multivariate logistic regression models were constructed. Compared with men tested over 12 months ago, untested men were younger, less educated, less likely to have unprotected anal intercourse with a regular male partner, less likely to have sought advice from a doctor, nurse or community organisation, more likely to expect HIV-negative disclosure, had fewer gay friends and spent more time using social networking websites. Compared with men who had tested over 12 months ago, men who had tested within the last year were younger, more likely to expect HIV-negative disclosure and disclose to casual partners, more likely to have sought advice from a doctor or nurse, had attended gay pools, gyms or beaches and had more gay friends and more male sex partners. Our findings suggest that the Internet and sex education in schools are important ways to promote HIV testing to untested MSM. Testing reinforcement messages delivered through gay community outreach and primary care will reach previously tested MSM.

Heterosexual anal intercourse and HIV infection risks in the context of alcohol serving venues, Cape Town, South Africa

Background

The most efficient sexual behavior for HIV transmission is unprotected receptive anal intercourse. However, it is unclear what role heterosexual unprotected anal sex is playing in the world's worst HIV epidemics of southern Africa. The objective is to examine the prevalence of heterosexual unprotected anal intercourse among men and women who drink at informal alcohol serving establishments (shebeens) in South Africa.

Methods

Cross-sectional surveys were collected from a convenience sample of 5037 patrons of 10 shebeens in a peri-urban township of Cape Town, South Africa. Analyses concentrated on establishing the rates of unprotected anal intercourse practiced by men and women as well as the factors associated with practicing anal intercourse.

Results

We found that 15% of men and 11% of women reported anal intercourse in the previous month, with 8% of men and 7% of women practicing any unprotected anal intercourse. Multiple logistic regression showed that younger age, having primary and casual sex partners, and meeting sex partners at shebeens were independently associated with engaging in anal intercourse. Mathematical modeling showed that individual risks are significantly impacted by anal intercourse but probably not to the degree needed to drive a generalized HIV epidemic.

Conclusions

Anal intercourse likely plays a significant role in HIV infections among a small minority of South Africans who patronize alcohol serving establishments. Heterosexual anal intercourse, the most risky sexual behavior for HIV transmission, should not be ignored in HIV prevention for South African heterosexuals. However, this relatively infrequent behavior should not become the focus of prevention efforts.

Understanding HIV disclosure: a review and application of the Disclosure Processes Model

HIV disclosure is a critical component of HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment efforts, yet the field lacks a comprehensive theoretical framework with which to study how HIV-positive individuals make decisions about disclosing their serostatus and how these decisions affect them. Recent theorizing in the context of the Disclosure Processes Model has suggested that the disclosure process consists of antecedent goals, the disclosure event itself, mediating processes and outcomes, and a feedback loop. In this paper, we apply this new theoretical framework to HIV disclosure in order to review the current state of the literature, identify gaps in existing research, and highlight the implications of the framework for future work in this area.