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Velavan V, Dhanapal R, Ramkumar G, Karthi S, Senthil-Nathan S, Ndomba OA, Kweka EJ. Characterization and Evaluation of Metarhizium spp. (Metsch.) Sorokin Isolates for Their Temperature Tolerance. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:68. [PMID: 35050008 PMCID: PMC8780002 DOI: 10.3390/jof8010068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A field survey was done in teak (Tectona grandis F.) forests in South India to explore the entomopathogenic effect of Metarhizium anisopliae (Ascomycota: Sordariomycetes) against teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae). About 300 soils and infected insect samples were collected during the survey and thirty-six fungal isolates were isolated from soil and insect samples and characterized. The fungi were cultured on PDAY with dodine and antibiotics. Generally, the EPF culture was incubated at 27 °C in darkness for 15 days. Virulence of the Entomopathogenic Fungi (EPF) ability to germinate under cold and heat temperatures was assessed in a culture impregnated with conidia. In the experiment, it was found that for the first time Metarhizium quizhouense, Metarhizium robertsii, and Metarhizium majus species caused significantly higher mortality to hosts. These isolates of M. anisopliae, M. robertsii, M. majus, and M. quizhouense were all considered to be effective virulent and environmentally adaptive. The Metarhizium isolates were recommended as effective bio-control agents through the field investigation of teak defoliator Hyblaea puera from South India forest. This study paves the way to utilize the indigenous isolates of EPF for the control of teak defoliator and to combat the pests thatare resistant to insecticide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viswakethu Velavan
- ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru 560024, India
- Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Bengaluru 560064, India
| | - Rajendran Dhanapal
- Adhiparasakthi Horticultural College, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Ranipet 632506, India
- Department of Entomology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Govindaraju Ramkumar
- Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Excellence in Environmental Sciences, Division of Bio pesticides and Environmental Toxicology, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli 627012, India; (G.R.); (S.K.)
| | - Sengodan Karthi
- Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Excellence in Environmental Sciences, Division of Bio pesticides and Environmental Toxicology, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli 627012, India; (G.R.); (S.K.)
| | - Sengottayan Senthil-Nathan
- Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Excellence in Environmental Sciences, Division of Bio pesticides and Environmental Toxicology, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli 627012, India; (G.R.); (S.K.)
| | - Osmund A. Ndomba
- Division of Livestock and Human Diseases Vector Control, Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, P.O. Box 3024, Arusha 23xxx, Tanzania; (O.A.N.); (E.J.K.)
| | - Eliningaya J. Kweka
- Division of Livestock and Human Diseases Vector Control, Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, P.O. Box 3024, Arusha 23xxx, Tanzania; (O.A.N.); (E.J.K.)
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Entomology, School of Medicine, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 1464, Mwanza 33xxx, Tanzania
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Ebani VV, Mancianti F. Entomopathogenic Fungi and Bacteria in a Veterinary Perspective. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10060479. [PMID: 34071435 PMCID: PMC8229426 DOI: 10.3390/biology10060479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Several fungal species are well suited to control arthropods, being able to cause epizootic infection among them and most of them infect their host by direct penetration through the arthropod’s tegument. Most of organisms are related to the biological control of crop pests, but, more recently, have been applied to combat some livestock ectoparasites. Among the entomopathogenic bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis, innocuous for humans, animals, and plants and isolated from different environments, showed the most relevant activity against arthropods. Its entomopathogenic property is related to the production of highly biodegradable proteins. Entomopathogenic fungi and bacteria are usually employed against agricultural pests, and some studies have focused on their use to control animal arthropods. However, risks of infections in animals and humans are possible; thus, further studies about their activity are necessary. Abstract The present study aimed to review the papers dealing with the biological activity of fungi and bacteria against some mites and ticks of veterinary interest. In particular, the attention was turned to the research regarding acarid species, Dermanyssus gallinae and Psoroptes sp., which are the cause of severe threat in farm animals and, regarding ticks, also pets. Their impact on animal and human health has been stressed, examining the weaknesses and strengths of conventional treatments. Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae are the most widely employed agents. Their activities have been reviewed, considering the feasibility of an in-field application and the effectiveness of the administration alone or combined with conventional and alternative drugs is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Virginia Ebani
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy;
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-050-221-6968
| | - Francesca Mancianti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, viale delle Piagge 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy;
- Interdepartmental Research Center “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
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Paecilomyces and Its Importance in the Biological Control of Agricultural Pests and Diseases. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9121746. [PMID: 33321854 PMCID: PMC7763231 DOI: 10.3390/plants9121746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Incorporating beneficial microorganisms in crop production is the most promising strategy for maintaining agricultural productivity and reducing the use of inorganic fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. Numerous microorganisms have been described in the literature as biological control agents for pests and diseases, although some have not yet been commercialised due to their lack of viability or efficacy in different crops. Paecilomyces is a cosmopolitan fungus that is mainly known for its nematophagous capacity, but it has also been reported as an insect parasite and biological control agent of several fungi and phytopathogenic bacteria through different mechanisms of action. In addition, species of this genus have recently been described as biostimulants of plant growth and crop yield. This review includes all the information on the genus Paecilomyces as a biological control agent for pests and diseases. Its growth rate and high spore production rate in numerous substrates ensures the production of viable, affordable, and efficient commercial formulations for agricultural use.
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Gu X, Zhang N, Xie Y, Zheng Y, Chen Y, Zhou X, Li X, Zhong Z, He R, Yang G. Metarhizium anisopliae CQMa128 regulates antioxidant/detoxification enzymes and exerts acaricidal activity against Psoroptes ovis var. cuniculi in rabbits: A preliminary study. Vet Parasitol 2020; 279:109059. [PMID: 32112975 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium anisopliae is highly pathogenic toward arthropods. Here, we evaluated the efficacy of a commercial formulation of M. anisopliae against P. ovis var. cuniculi in vivo and in vitro and explored the acaricidal mechanism of M. anisopliae by determining the antioxidant/detoxification-related enzymes activities including glutathione S-transferase (GST), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) in mites. The results showed that M. anisopliae had high acaricidal activity against P. ovis var. cuniculi in vitro, in a time- and dose-dependent manner, with 83.33 % mortality at day 9 and a median lethal time (LT50) of 6.10 days after applying 6.14 × 109 conidia/ml of M. anisopliae. In vivo experiments, M. anisopliae achieved 100 % therapeutic effect after 3 days, compared with only 62.21 % for ivermectin. Enzyme assays showed that M. anisopliae significantly upregulated activities of GST, SOD and CAT in Psoroptes mites. The results indicate that M. anisopliae may be an effective biological agent for control of P. ovis var. cuniculi infestations in rabbits and the acaricidal activity may be associated with the changes of enzyme activities of the detoxification and antioxidant system in Psoroptes mites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobin Gu
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Na Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China; Department of Biological Engineering, College of AKsu Vocational And Technical, Xingjiang, 843000, China.
| | - Yue Xie
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Youle Zheng
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Yuhang Chen
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Xuan Zhou
- Institute of Animal Genetics and Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Xiaoying Li
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science/Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Yongchuan, Chongqing, 402160, China.
| | - Zhijun Zhong
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Ran He
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Guangyou Yang
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
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Immediato D, Camarda A, Iatta R, Puttilli MR, Ramos RAN, Di Paola G, Giangaspero A, Otranto D, Cafarchia C. Laboratory evaluation of a native strain of Beauveria bassiana for controlling Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778) (Acari: Dermanyssidae). Vet Parasitol 2015. [PMID: 26206607 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778) (Acari: Dermanyssidae) is one of the most economically important ectoparasites of laying hens worldwide. Chemical control of this mite may result in environmental and food contamination, as well as the development of drug resistance. High virulence of Beauveria bassiana sensu lato strains isolated from naturally infected hosts or from their environment has been demonstrated toward many arthropod species, including ticks. However, a limited number of studies have assessed the use of B. bassiana for the control of D. gallinae s.l. and none of them have employed native strains. This study reports the pathogenicity of a native strain of B. bassiana (CD1123) against nymphs and adults of D. gallinae. Batches of nymph and adult mites (i.e., n=720 for each stage) for treated groups (TGs) were placed on paper soaked with a 0.1% tween 80 suspension of B. bassiana (CIS, 10(5), 10(7) and 10(9) conidia/ml), whilst 240 untreated control mites for each stage (CG) were exposed only to 0.1% tween 80. The mites in TG showed a higher mortality at all stages (p<0.01) when compared to CG, depending on the time of exposure and the conidial concentration. A 100% mortality rate was recorded using a CIS of 10(9) conidia/ml 12 days post infection (DPI) in adults and 14 DPI in nymphs. B. bassiana suspension containing 10(9) conidia/ml was highly virulent towards nymph and adult stages of D. gallinae, therefore representing a possible promising natural product to be used in alternative or in combination to other acaricidal compounds currently used for controlling the red mite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Immediato
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Antonio Camarda
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Roberta Iatta
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Maria Rita Puttilli
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Rafael Antonio Nascimento Ramos
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy; Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias dos Animais Domésticos, Universida de Federal Rural de Pernambuco - UFRPE, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Giancarlo Di Paola
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Annunziata Giangaspero
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, degli Alimenti e dell'Ambiente, Università degli Studi di Foggia, Italy
| | - Domenico Otranto
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Claudia Cafarchia
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, Italy.
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McNair CM. Ectoparasites of medical and veterinary importance: drug resistance and the need for alternative control methods. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 67:351-63. [PMID: 25644683 DOI: 10.1111/jphp.12368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Despite multiple attempts at eradication, many ectoparasites of humans and domestic livestock remain a persistent problem in the modern world. For many years, a range of pesticide drugs including organophosphates, organochlorides and synthetic pyrethroids provided effective control of these parasites; but intensive use of these drugs has led to the evolution of resistance in many target species. This paper aims to review the effectiveness of current control methods and discuss potential alternatives for the long term sustainable control of ectoparasites. KEY FINDINGS Important medical ectoparasites such as scabies mites, head lice and bed bugs present a significant public health problem, and so adequate control methods are essential. Ectoparasites of domestic livestock and farmed fish (for example sheep scab mites, poultry mites and sea lice) are also of concern given the increasing strain on the world's food supply. These parasites have become resistant to several classes of pesticide, making control very difficult. Recently, an increasing amount of research has focussed on alternative control methods such as insect growth regulators, biological control using essential oils or fungi, as well as vaccine development against some ectoparasites of medical and veterinary importance. SUMMARY Drug resistance is prevalent in all of the ectoparasites discussed in this review. A wide variety of alternative control methods have been identified, however further research is necessary in order for these to be used to successfully control ectoparasitic diseases in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol M McNair
- Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
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Abstract
Psoroptic mange is one of the most severe skin conditions of sheep. This highly contagious disease is responsible for huge economical losses in many sheep-raising countries. It is also a significant welfare concern. Our understanding of the biology of Psoroptes ovis and of the host-parasite relationship during psoroptic mange made remarkable progress during the last decade. These data combined with the availability of powerful molecular tools have opened new avenues of research. Clearly, there is still a long way to go before a vaccine becomes a reality. Additionally, other diagnostic tools and control methods should be further investigated such as breeding for genetic resistance and the use of biocontrol agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand Jacques Losson
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Bd de Colonster 20, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
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Ward MDW, Chung YJ, Copeland LB, Doerfler DL. Allergic Responses Induced by a Fungal Biopesticide Metarhizium anisopliae and House Dust Mite Are Compared in a Mouse Model. J Toxicol 2011; 2011:360805. [PMID: 21785589 PMCID: PMC3135125 DOI: 10.1155/2011/360805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Revised: 03/08/2011] [Accepted: 04/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Biopesticides can be effective in controlling their target pest. However, research regarding allergenicity and asthma development is limited. We compared the ability of fungal biopesticide Metarhizium anisopliae (MACA) and house dust mite (HDM) extracts to induce allergic responses in BALB/c mice. The extracts were administered by intratracheal aspiration at doubling doses (2.5-80 μg protein) 4X over a four-week period. Three days after the last exposure, serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were collected. The extracts' relative allergenicity was evaluated based on response robustness (lowest significant dose response compared to control (0 μg)). MACA induced a more robust serum total IgE response than HDM. However, in the antigen-specific IgE assay, a similar dose of both MACA and HDM was required to achieve the same response level. Our data suggest a threshold dose of MACA for allergy induction and that M. anisopliae may be similar to HDM in allergy induction potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marsha D. W. Ward
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T. W. Alexander Drive, MD B105-02, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Yong Joo Chung
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T. W. Alexander Drive, MD B105-02, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Lisa B. Copeland
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T. W. Alexander Drive, MD B105-02, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Donald L. Doerfler
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T. W. Alexander Drive, MD B105-02, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
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Howard AFV, N'Guessan R, Koenraadt CJM, Asidi A, Farenhorst M, Akogbéto M, Knols BGJ, Takken W. First report of the infection of insecticide-resistant malaria vector mosquitoes with an entomopathogenic fungus under field conditions. Malar J 2011; 10:24. [PMID: 21288359 PMCID: PMC3045381 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Accepted: 02/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Insecticide-resistant mosquitoes are compromising the ability of current mosquito control tools to control malaria vectors. A proposed new approach for mosquito control is to use entomopathogenic fungi. These fungi have been shown to be lethal to both insecticide-susceptible and insecticide-resistant mosquitoes under laboratory conditions. The goal of this study was to see whether entomopathogenic fungi could be used to infect insecticide-resistant malaria vectors under field conditions, and to see whether the virulence and viability of the fungal conidia decreased after exposure to ambient African field conditions. Methods This study used the fungus Beauveria bassiana to infect the insecticide-resistant malaria vector Anopheles gambiae s.s (Diptera: Culicidae) VKPER laboratory colony strain. Fungal conidia were applied to polyester netting and kept under West African field conditions for varying periods of time. The virulence of the fungal-treated netting was tested 1, 3 and 5 days after net application by exposing An. gambiae s.s. VKPER mosquitoes in WHO cone bioassays carried out under field conditions. In addition, the viability of B. bassiana conidia was measured after up to 20 days exposure to field conditions. Results The results show that B. bassiana infection caused significantly increased mortality with the daily risk of dying being increased by 2.5× for the fungus-exposed mosquitoes compared to the control mosquitoes. However, the virulence of the B. bassiana conidia decreased with increasing time spent exposed to the field conditions, the older the treatment on the net, the lower the fungus-induced mortality rate. This is likely to be due to the climate because laboratory trials found no such decline within the same trial time period. Conidial viability also decreased with increasing exposure to the net and natural abiotic environmental conditions. After 20 days field exposure the conidial viability was 30%, but the viability of control conidia not exposed to the net or field conditions was 79%. Conclusions This work shows promise for the use of B. bassiana fungal conidia against insecticide-resistant mosquitoes in the field, but further work is required to examine the role of environmental conditions on fungal virulence and viability with a view to eventually making the fungal conidia delivery system more able to withstand the ambient African climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annabel F V Howard
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 8031, 6700 EH Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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Howard AF, N'guessan R, Koenraadt CJ, Asidi A, Farenhorst M, Akogbéto M, Thomas MB, Knols BG, Takken W. The entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana reduces instantaneous blood feeding in wild multi-insecticide-resistant Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes in Benin, West Africa. Parasit Vectors 2010; 3:87. [PMID: 20843321 PMCID: PMC2946288 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-3-87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mosquito-borne diseases are still a major health risk in many developing countries, and the emergence of multi-insecticide-resistant mosquitoes is threatening the future of vector control. Therefore, new tools that can manage resistant mosquitoes are required. Laboratory studies show that entomopathogenic fungi can kill insecticide-resistant malaria vectors but this needs to be verified in the field. Methods The present study investigated whether these fungi will be effective at infecting, killing and/or modifying the behaviour of wild multi-insecticide-resistant West African mosquitoes. The entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana were separately applied to white polyester window netting and used in combination with either a permethrin-treated or untreated bednet in an experimental hut trial. Untreated nets were used because we wanted to test the effect of fungus alone and in combination with an insecticide to examine any potential additive or synergistic effects. Results In total, 1125 female mosquitoes were collected during the hut trial, mainly Culex quinquefasciatus Say. Unfortunately, not enough wild Anopheles gambiae Giles were collected to allow the effect the fungi may have on this malaria vector to be analysed. None of the treatment combinations caused significantly increased mortality of Cx. quinquefasciatus when compared to the control hut. The only significant behaviour modification found was a reduction in blood feeding by Cx. quinquefasciatus, caused by the permethrin and B. bassiana treatments, although no additive effect was seen in the B. bassiana and permethrin combination treatment. Beauveria bassiana did not repel blood foraging mosquitoes either in the laboratory or field. Conclusions This is the first time that an entomopathogenic fungus has been shown to reduce blood feeding of wild mosquitoes. This behaviour modification indicates that B. bassiana could potentially be a new mosquito control tool effective at reducing disease transmission, although further field work in areas with filariasis transmission should be carried out to verify this. In addition, work targeting malaria vector mosquitoes should be carried out to see if these mosquitoes manifest the same behaviour modification after infection with B. bassiana conidia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annabel Fv Howard
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P,O, Box 8031, 6700 EH Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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