Biodegradation of diethyl-phthalate (DEP) by halotolerant bacteria isolated from an estuarine environment

Algae- and bacteria-based biodegradation of phthalic acid esters towards the sustainable green solution

Phthalic acid esters are widely used worldwide as plasticizers. The high consumption of phthalates in China makes it the world's largest plasticizer market. The lack of phthalic acid ester's chemical bonding with the polymer matrix facilitates their detachment from plastic products and subsequent release into the environment and causes serious threats to the health of living organisms. Thus, environmentally friendly and sustainable solutions for their removal are urgently needed. In this context, both natural and engineered bacterial and algal communities have played a crucial role in the degradation of various phthalic acid esters present in water and soil. When algae-bacteria co-culture is compared to a singular algae or bacteria system, this symbiotic system shows superior performance in the removal of dibutyl phthalates and diethyl phthalates from synthetic wastewater. This review provides an optimistic outlook for co-culture systems by in-depth examining single microorganisms, namely bacteria and algae, as well as algae-bacterial consortiums for phthalates degradation, which will draw attention to species co-existence for the removal of various pollutants from the environment. In addition, further development and research, particularly on the mechanisms, genes involved in the degradation of phthalic acid esters, and interactions between bacterial and algal species, will lead to the discovery of more adaptable species as well as the production of targeted species to address the environmental pollution crisis and provide a green, efficient, and sustainable approach to environmental protection. Discrepancies in knowledge and potential avenues for exploration will enhance the existing body of literature, enabling researchers to investigate this field more comprehensively.

Whole-cell biocatalysis for phthalate esters biodegradation in wastewater by a saline soil bacteria SSB-consortium

Phthalic acid esters (PAE) are widely used as plasticizers and have been classified as ubiquitous environmental contaminants of primary concern. PAE have accumulated intensively in surface water, groundwater, and wastewaters; thus, PAE degradation is essential. In the present study, the ability of a saline soil bacteria (SSB)-consortium to degrade synthetic wastewater-phthalates with alkyl chains of different lengths, such as diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was characterized. A central composite design-response surface methodology was applied to optimize the degradation of each phthalate, where the independent variables were temperature (21-41 °C), pH (5.3-8.6) and PAE concentration (79.5-920.4 mg L-1), and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry was used to identify the metabolites generated during phthalate degradation. Optimal conditions were 31 °C, pH 7.0, and an initial PAE concentration of 500 mg L-1, where the SSB-consortium removed 84.9%, 98.47%, 99.09% and 98.25% of initial DEP, DBP, BBP, and DEHP, respectively, in 168h. A first-order kinetic model explained - the biodegradation progression, while the half-life of PAE degradation ranged from 12.8 to 29.8 h. Genera distribution of the SSB-consortium was determined by bacterial meta-taxonomic analysis. Serratia, Methylobacillus, Acrhomobacter, and Pseudomonas were the predominant genera; however, the type of phthalate directly affected their distribution. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that high concentrations (1000 mg L-1) of phthalates induced morphological alterations in the bacterial SSB-consortium. The metabolite profiling showed that DEP, DBP, BBP, and DEHP could be fully metabolized through the de-esterification and β-oxidation pathways. Therefore, the SSB-consortium can be considered a potential candidate for bioremediation of complex phthalate-contaminated water resources.

Remediation of phthalate acid esters from contaminated environment—Insights on the bioremedial approaches and future perspectives

Phthalates are well-known emerging pollutants that are toxic to the environment and human health. Phthalates are lipophilic chemicals used as plasticizers in many of the items for improving their material properties. These compounds are not chemically bound and are released to the surroundings directly. Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are endocrine disruptors and can interfere with hormones, which can cause issues with development and reproduction, thus there is a huge concern over their existence in various ecological surroundings. The purpose of this review is to explore the occurrence, fate, and concentration of phthalates in various environmental matrices. This article also covers the phthalate degradation process, mechanism, and outcomes. Besides the conventional treatment technology, the paper also aims at the recent advancements in various physical, chemical, and biological approaches developed for phthalate degradation. In this paper, a special focus has been given on the diverse microbial entities and their bioremedial mechanisms executes the PAEs removal. Critically, the analyses method for determining intermediate products generated during phthalate biotransformation have been discussed. Concluisvely, the challenges, limitations, knowledge gaps and future opportunities of bioremediation and their significant role in ecology have also been highlighted.

Biodegradation of diethyl phthalate and phthalic acid by a new indigenous Pseudomonas putida

Diethyl phthalate (DEP) is one of the extensively used plasticizers which has been considered a priority hazardous pollutant due to its carcinogenic, endocrine disrupter, and multi-toxic effects on humans. The identification of DEP in different parts of the ecosphere has increased the global community's attention to the elimination of this pollutant in a bio-eco-friendly way. In this research, a novel aerobic bacterial strain nominates as ShA (GenBank accession number: MN298858) capable of consuming DEP as carbon and energy sources, was isolated from the upper phase (0-10 cm) of Anzali international wetland sediments by enrichment culture method. Morphological characteristics and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis demonstrated that strain ShA belonged to Pseudomonas putida. The substrate utilization test demonstrated that strain ShA was able to grow in mineral salt medium containing dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and phthalic acid (PA) isomers including terephthalic and isophthalic acid. Degradation assay showed strain ShA completely degraded 200 mg/L DEP within 22 h (pH 7.0, 30 °C). Surprisingly, PA as the main intermediate of DEP biodegradation was identified by GC-FID. Moreover, the rapid degradation of 2000 mg/L PA to CO₂ and H₂O was viewed in 22 h by strain ShA. The possible route of DEP degradation was DEP directly to PA and then PA consumption for growth. This study obtained results that provide a great contribution to applying strain ShA in the biodegradation of low molecular weight of PAEs and PA isomers in natural ecosystems. This is the first report of a P. putida strain able to degrade DEP and PA.

Molecular Design and Mechanism Analysis of Phthalic Acid Ester Substitutes: Improved Biodegradability in Processes of Sewage Treatment and Soil Remediation

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) have the characteristics of environmental persistence. Therefore, improving the biodegradability of PAEs is the key to reducing the extent of ecological harm realized. Firstly, the scoring function values of PAEs docking with various degrading enzymes in sewage treatment were calculated. Based on this, a 3D-quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) model for PAE biodegradability was built, and 38 PAE substitutes were created. By predicting the endocrine-disrupting toxicity and functions of PAE substitutes, two types of PAE substitutes that are easily degraded by microorganisms, have low toxicity, and remain functional were successfully screened. Meanwhile, the differences in the mechanism of molecular degradation difference before and after PAE modification were analyzed based on the distribution characteristics of amino acid residues in the molecular docking complex. Finally, the photodegradability and microbial degradability of the PAE substitutes in the soil environment was evaluated. From the 3D-QSAR model design perspective, the modification mechanism of PAE substitutes suitable for sewage treatment and soil environment degradation was analyzed. We aim to improve the biodegradability of PAEs at the source and provide theoretical support for alleviating the environmental hazards of using PAEs.

Engineering Transcription Factor XylS for Sensing Phthalic Acid and Terephthalic Acid: An Application for Enzyme Evolution

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and phthalate esters (PAEs) are used extensively as plastics and plasticizers. Enzymatic degradation of PET and PAEs has drawn great attention in recent years; however, evolution of PET- and PAE-degrading enzymes is still a big challenge, partly because of the lack of an effective screening method to detect phthalic acid (PA) and terephthalic acid (TPA), which are the main hydrolysis products of PAEs and PET. Here, by directed evolution of a promiscuous transcription factor, XylS from Pseudomonas putida, we created two novel variants, XylS-K38R-L224Q and XylS-W88C-L224Q, that are able to bind PA and TPA and activate the downstream expression of a fluorescent reporter protein. Based on these elements, whole-cell biosensors were constructed, which enabled the fluorimetric detection of as little as 10 μM PA or TPA. A PAE hydrolase, GoEst15, was preliminarily engineered using this new biosensor, yielding a mutant GoEst15-V3 whose activity toward dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and p-nitrophenyl butyrate was enhanced 2.0- and 2.5-fold, respectively. It was shown that 96.5% DBP (5 mM) was degraded by GoEst15-V3 in 60 min, while the wild-type enzyme degraded only 55% DBP. This study provides an effective screening tool for directed evolution of PAE-/PET-degrading enzymes.

Remediation of Diethyl Phthalate in Aqueous Effluents with TiO2-Supported Rh0 Nanoparticles as Multicatalytic Materials

An innovative “domino” process, based on an arene hydrogenation followed by a photocatalytic step, was designed for the remediation of endocrine disrupting compounds, in highly concentrated aqueous effluents. The novelty relies on the use of TiO2-supported zerovalent Rh nanoparticles as multicatalytic materials (MCMs) for this two-step treatment, applied on diethyl phthalate, which is a model aromatic pollutant frequently present in aquatic environments. This nanocomposite advanced material, which was easily prepared by a green, wet impregnation methodology, proved to be active in the successive reactions, the reduction in the aromatic ring, and the photodegradation step. This sustainable approach offers promising alternatives in the case of photoresistive compounds.