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Extracellular Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Downstream of EGFR Increases Human Glioblastoma Cell Survival. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22136824. [PMID: 34201962 PMCID: PMC8268299 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a crucial mediator involved in the progression of different cancers, including glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most frequent and deadly human brain tumor, characterized by extensive invasiveness and rapid cell growth. Most of GBMs overexpress the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and we investigated the possible link between S1P and EGFR signaling pathways, focusing on its role in GBM survival, using the U87MG human cell line overexpressing EGFR (EGFR+). We previously demonstrated that EGFR+ cells have higher levels of extracellular S1P and increased sphingosine kinase-1 (SK1) activity than empty vector expressing cells. Notably, we demonstrated that EGFR+ cells are resistant to temozolomide (TMZ), the standard chemotherapeutic drug in GBM treatment, and the inhibition of SK1 or S1P receptors made EGFR+ cells sensitive to TMZ; moreover, exogenous S1P reverted this effect, thus involving extracellular S1P as a survival signal in TMZ resistance in GBM cells. In addition, both PI3K/AKT and MAPK inhibitors markedly reduced cell survival, suggesting that the enhanced resistance to TMZ of EGFR+ cells is dependent on the increased S1P secretion, downstream of the EGFR-ERK-SK1-S1P pathway. Altogether, our study provides evidence of a functional link between S1P and EGFR signaling pathways enhancing the survival properties of GBM cells.
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Habibi Z, Hajizadeh M, Nozarian Z, Safavi M, Monajemzadeh M, Meybodi KT, Nejat F, Vasei M. Cytomegalovirus DNA in non-glioblastoma multiforme brain tumors of infants. Childs Nerv Syst 2021; 37:1581-1586. [PMID: 33409619 DOI: 10.1007/s00381-021-05038-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE CMV antigens have been detected in some brain tumors specially glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). As brain tumors in the first years of life are among the most aggressive neoplasms with poor prognosis, novel therapeutic options like targeted therapy against virus antigens are demanded. Infantile central nervous system tumors, other than GBM, have not been so far studied for CMV. To our best knowledge, this is the first study in which the presence of CMV-DNA, as a potential viral target for therapy, in non-GBM infantile brain tumors has been investigated. METHODS The paraffin blocks of non-GBM brain neoplasms of 36 infants (age < 24 months) who were operated on between 2006 and 2016 were examined for CMV-DNA, using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Paraffin blocks of CMV infected lung tissue were used as positive control. Extraction and amplification of β2 microglobulin gene from each tumor tissue were carried as positive internal control. We also assayed 25 paraffin blocks of meningomyelocele for CMV DNA as negative tissue controls. RESULTS Histopathological diagnoses consisted of 13 glial/neuroglial tumors (36.1%), 8 ependymomas (22.2%), 7 medulloblastomas (19.4%), 3 choroid plexus tumors (8.3%), 2 atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumors (5.6%), 2 embryonal CNS tumors (5.6%), and 1 germ cell tumor (2.8%). We could not detect CMV DNA in all samples examined. CONCLUSION Although CMV may be associated with GBM, no role could be proposed for this virus in development of non-GBM infantile brain tumors. Further investigations on larger series of brain tumors should be conducted to confirm or rule out our conclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohreh Habibi
- Department of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahsa Hajizadeh
- Department of Pediatric Pathology, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zohreh Nozarian
- Department of Pediatric Pathology, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Moeinadin Safavi
- Department of Pediatric Pathology, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Monajemzadeh
- Department of Pediatric Pathology, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Keyvan Tayebi Meybodi
- Department of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farideh Nejat
- Department of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Vasei
- Cell-based Therapies Research Center, Digestive Disease Research Institute, Shariati Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran.
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Kavya S, Reghu R. An Overview of High-grade Glioma: Current and Emerging Treatment Approaches. CURRENT CANCER THERAPY REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.2174/1573394716666200721155514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
High grade glioma is one of the severe form of tumour that progresses in the glial cells
of the brain and spinal cord. Age, gender, exposure to infections, race, ethnicity, viruses and allergens,
environmental carcinogens, diet, head injury or trauma and ionizing radiation may report
with increased glioma risk. Headache, seizure mainly generalized tonic-clonic seizure, memory
loss and altered sensorium are considered as common symptoms of glioma. Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI), CT scans, neurological examinations and biopsy are considered as the diagnostic
option for glioma. Treatment for glioma mainly depended upon the tumour progression, malignancy,
cell type, age, location of tumour growth and anatomic structure. The standard treatment includes
surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Temozolomide is usually prescribed at a
dosage of 75 mg/m2 and began in combination with radiation therapy and continued daily. The primary
indicator of hepatotoxicity is the elevation of the liver profiles, i.e. the changes in any of the
liver panels may be considered to be hepatotoxic. Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT),
Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase (SGPT), Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) are rising panels
of the liver, which are elevated during toxicity. In some patients, albumin and globulin levels
may show variations. Treatment for glioma associated symptoms like seizures, depression anxiety
etc. are also mentioned along with supportive care for glioma. New trends in the treatment for glioma
are RINTEGA, an experimental immunotherapeutic agent and bevazizumab, a recombinant
monoclonal, a humanized antibody against the VEGF ligand [VEGF-A (vascular endothelial
growth factor)] in tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S.G. Kavya
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi, 682041, Kerala, India
| | - R. Reghu
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi, 682041, Kerala, India
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Riboni L, Abdel Hadi L, Navone SE, Guarnaccia L, Campanella R, Marfia G. Sphingosine-1-Phosphate in the Tumor Microenvironment: A Signaling Hub Regulating Cancer Hallmarks. Cells 2020; 9:E337. [PMID: 32024090 PMCID: PMC7072483 DOI: 10.3390/cells9020337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As a key hub of malignant properties, the cancer microenvironment plays a crucial role intimately connected to tumor properties. Accumulating evidence supports that the lysophospholipid sphingosine-1-phosphate acts as a key signal in the cancer extracellular milieu. In this review, we have a particular focus on glioblastoma, representative of a highly aggressive and deleterious neoplasm in humans. First, we highlight recent advances and emerging concepts for how tumor cells and different recruited normal cells contribute to the sphingosine-1-phosphate enrichment in the cancer microenvironment. Then, we describe and discuss how sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling contributes to favor cancer hallmarks including enhancement of proliferation, stemness, invasion, death resistance, angiogenesis, immune evasion and, possibly, aberrant metabolism. We also discuss the potential of how sphingosine-1-phosphate control mechanisms are coordinated across distinct cancer microenvironments. Further progress in understanding the role of S1P signaling in cancer will depend crucially on increasing knowledge of its participation in the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Riboni
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, LITA-Segrate, University of Milan, via Fratelli Cervi, 93, 20090 Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Loubna Abdel Hadi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, LITA-Segrate, University of Milan, via Fratelli Cervi, 93, 20090 Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Elena Navone
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurosurgery and Cell Therapy, Neurosurgery Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Francesco Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy (L.G.)
| | - Laura Guarnaccia
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurosurgery and Cell Therapy, Neurosurgery Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Francesco Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy (L.G.)
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy
| | - Rolando Campanella
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurosurgery and Cell Therapy, Neurosurgery Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Francesco Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy (L.G.)
| | - Giovanni Marfia
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurosurgery and Cell Therapy, Neurosurgery Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, via Francesco Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy (L.G.)
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Patient-derived orthotopic xenografts of pediatric brain tumors: a St. Jude resource. Acta Neuropathol 2020; 140:209-225. [PMID: 32519082 PMCID: PMC7360541 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-020-02171-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric brain tumors are the leading cause of cancer-related death in children. Patient-derived orthotopic xenografts (PDOX) of childhood brain tumors have recently emerged as a biologically faithful vehicle for testing novel and more effective therapies. Herein, we provide the histopathological and molecular analysis of 37 novel PDOX models generated from pediatric brain tumor patients treated at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. Using a combination of histopathology, whole-genome and whole-exome sequencing, RNA-sequencing, and DNA methylation arrays, we demonstrate the overall fidelity and inter-tumoral molecular heterogeneity of pediatric brain tumor PDOX models. These models represent frequent as well as rare childhood brain tumor entities, including medulloblastoma, ependymoma, atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor, and embryonal tumor with multi-layer rosettes. PDOX models will be valuable platforms for evaluating novel therapies and conducting pre-clinical trials to accelerate progress in the treatment of brain tumors in children. All described PDOX models and associated datasets can be explored using an interactive web-based portal and will be made freely available to the research community upon request.
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Dimitrova I, Tacheva T, Mindov I, Petrov B, Aleksandrova E, Valkanov S, Gulubova M, Vlaykova T. Serum levels of MMP-7 in primary brain cancers and brain metastases. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2019.1626282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ivelina Dimitrova
- Department of Surgery and Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Tanya Tacheva
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Ivan Mindov
- Department of Surgery and Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Bozhidar Petrov
- Department of Surgery and Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Elina Aleksandrova
- Department of General and Clinical Pathology, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Stefan Valkanov
- Department of Surgery and Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Maya Gulubova
- Department of General and Clinical Pathology, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Tatyana Vlaykova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
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Mao XY, Dai JX, Zhou HH, Liu ZQ, Jin WL. Brain tumor modeling using the CRISPR/Cas9 system: state of the art and view to the future. Oncotarget 2016; 7:33461-71. [PMID: 26993776 PMCID: PMC5078110 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Although brain tumors have been known tremendously over the past decade, there are still many problems to be solved. The etiology of brain tumors is not well understood and the treatment remains modest. There is in great need to develop a suitable brain tumor models that faithfully mirror the etiology of human brain neoplasm and subsequently get more efficient therapeutic approaches for these disorders. In this review, we described the current status of animal models of brain tumors and analyzed their advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, prokaryotic clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9), a versatile genome editing technology for investigating the functions of target genes, and its application were also introduced in our present work. We firstly proposed that brain tumor modeling could be well established via CRISPR/Cas9 techniques. And CRISPR/Cas9-mediated brain tumor modeling was likely to be more suitable for figuring out the pathogenesis of brain tumors, as CRISPR/Cas9 platform was a simple and more efficient biological toolbox for implementing mutagenesis of oncogenes or tumor suppressors that were closely linked with brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yuan Mao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, P. R. China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Xiang Dai
- Public Health Sciences Division/Translational Research Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Hong-Hao Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, P. R. China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, P. R. China
| | - Zhao-Qian Liu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, P. R. China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, P. R. China
| | - Wei-Lin Jin
- Institute of Nano Biomedicine and Engineering, Department of Instrument Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Electronic Information and Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
- National Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
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Gopalakrishnan V, Tao RH, Dobson T, Brugmann W, Khatua S. Medulloblastoma development: tumor biology informs treatment decisions. CNS Oncol 2015; 4:79-89. [PMID: 25768332 DOI: 10.2217/cns.14.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Medulloblastoma is the most common malignant pediatric brain tumor. Current treatments including surgery, craniospinal radiation and high-dose chemotherapy have led to improvement in survival. However, the risk for recurrence as well as significant long-term neurocognitive and endocrine sequelae associated with current treatment modalities underscore the urgent need for novel tumor-specific, normal brain-sparing therapies. It has also provided the impetus for research focused on providing a better understanding of medulloblastoma biology. The expectation is that such studies will lead to the identification of new therapeutic targets and eventually to an increase in personalized treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidya Gopalakrishnan
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Söderberg-Nauclér C, Johnsen JI. Cytomegalovirus in human brain tumors: Role in pathogenesis and potential treatment options. World J Exp Med 2015; 5:1-10. [PMID: 25699229 PMCID: PMC4308527 DOI: 10.5493/wjem.v5.i1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
During the last years increasing evidence implies that human cytomegalovirus (CMV) can be attributed to human malignancies arising from numerous tissues. In this perspective, we will review and discuss the potential mechanisms through which CMV infection may contribute to brain tumors by affecting tumor cell initiation, progression and metastasis formation. Recent evidence also suggests that anti-CMV treatment results in impaired tumor growth of CMV positive xenografts in animal models and potentially increased survival in CMV positive glioblastoma patients. Based on these observations and the high tumor promoting capacity of this virus, the classical and novel antiviral therapies against CMV should be revisited as they may represent a great promise for halting tumor progression and lower cancer deaths.
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10
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Swartling FJ, Čančer M, Frantz A, Weishaupt H, Persson AI. Deregulated proliferation and differentiation in brain tumors. Cell Tissue Res 2015; 359:225-54. [PMID: 25416506 PMCID: PMC4286433 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-2046-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Neurogenesis, the generation of new neurons, is deregulated in neural stem cell (NSC)- and progenitor-derived murine models of malignant medulloblastoma and glioma, the most common brain tumors of children and adults, respectively. Molecular characterization of human malignant brain tumors, and in particular brain tumor stem cells (BTSCs), has identified neurodevelopmental transcription factors, microRNAs, and epigenetic factors known to inhibit neuronal and glial differentiation. We are starting to understand how these factors are regulated by the major oncogenic drivers in malignant brain tumors. In this review, we will focus on the molecular switches that block normal neuronal differentiation and induce brain tumor formation. Genetic or pharmacological manipulation of these switches in BTSCs has been shown to restore the ability of tumor cells to differentiate. We will discuss potential brain tumor therapies that will promote differentiation in order to reduce treatment resistance, suppress tumor growth, and prevent recurrence in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik J Swartling
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, SE-751 85, Sweden
| | - Matko Čančer
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, SE-751 85, Sweden
| | - Aaron Frantz
- Departments of Neurology and Neurological Surgery, Sandler Neurosciences Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Holger Weishaupt
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, SE-751 85, Sweden
| | - Anders I Persson
- Departments of Neurology and Neurological Surgery, Sandler Neurosciences Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
- Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
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Hede SM, Savov V, Weishaupt H, Sangfelt O, Swartling FJ. Oncoprotein stabilization in brain tumors. Oncogene 2014; 33:4709-21. [PMID: 24166497 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2013] [Revised: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Proteins involved in promoting cell proliferation and viability need to be timely expressed and carefully controlled for the proper development of the brain but also efficiently degraded in order to prevent cells from becoming brain cancer cells. A major pathway for targeted protein degradation in cells is the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). Oncoproteins that drive tumor development and tumor maintenance are often deregulated and stabilized in malignant cells. This can occur when oncoproteins escape degradation by the UPS because of mutations in either the oncoprotein itself or in the UPS components responsible for recognition and ubiquitylation of the oncoprotein. As the pathogenic accumulation of an oncoprotein can lead to effectively sustained cell growth, viability and tumor progression, it is an indisputable target for cancer treatment. The most common types of malignant brain tumors in children and adults are medulloblastoma and glioma, respectively. Here, we review different ways of how deregulated proteolysis of oncoproteins involved in major signaling cancer pathways contributes to medulloblastoma and glioma development. We also describe means of targeting relevant oncoproteins in brain tumors with treatments affecting their stability or therapeutic strategies directed against the UPS itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- S-M Hede
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - V Savov
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - H Weishaupt
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - O Sangfelt
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - F J Swartling
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Rethinking immunotherapy for brain cancers in the light of cancer complexity. Indian J Med Res 2013; 137:871-3. [PMID: 23760369 PMCID: PMC3734675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
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