1
|
Issarapanacheewin S, Choomjun D, Katekaew W, Prasertchiewchan N, Kingkam W. Leaching behavior and compressive strength in the immobilization of Cs-137 contaminated electric arc furnace dust via doping with activated carbon. Heliyon 2024; 10:e33923. [PMID: 39071714 PMCID: PMC11283128 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the potential of an immobilization technique to inhibit the migration and dispersion of Cs-137 contaminated electric arc furnace dust (EAFD) into the environment, by investigating its compressive strength and leaching characteristics. The EAFD was employed to replace ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in varied ratios, ranging from 0 % to 50 % by weight. The replacement was done using various water-binder ratios of 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50. Furthermore, the use of activated carbon (AC) has been shown to minimize radionuclide and heavy metal discharge related to its high porosity. AC was added at weight concentrations of 0.5 %, 1.0 %, 1.5 %, and 2.0 %. Compressive strength and leaching tests are used to assess the long-term stability of waste forms and the effectiveness of immobilizing radioactive wastes, which is beneficial for storing and disposing of radioactive waste. The compressive strength is affected by the amount of EAFD, water-to-binder ratios, the addition of AC, and the duration of curing. Measurements of specific surface area, pore size, pore volume, and porosity were also carried out under various conditions. The research results indicate that the addition of AC improves the compressive strength and decreases the release of Cs-137 and heavy metals from the specimen. The mixture of 45 % EAFD and 1.5 % AC is appropriate for efficiently immobilizing Cs-137 contaminated EAFD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sudarat Issarapanacheewin
- Radioactive Waste Management Center, Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (Public Organization), Ongkharak, Nakhon Nayok, 26120, Thailand
| | - Dechanun Choomjun
- Radioactive Waste Management Center, Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (Public Organization), Ongkharak, Nakhon Nayok, 26120, Thailand
| | - Witsanu Katekaew
- Radioactive Waste Management Center, Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (Public Organization), Ongkharak, Nakhon Nayok, 26120, Thailand
| | - Nikom Prasertchiewchan
- Radioactive Waste Management Center, Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (Public Organization), Ongkharak, Nakhon Nayok, 26120, Thailand
| | - Wilasinee Kingkam
- Nuclear Technology Research and Development Center, Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (Public Organization), Ongkharak, Nakhon Nayok, 26120, Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ptaszyńska K, Malaika A, Kozigrodzka K, Kozłowski M. A Green Approach to Obtaining Glycerol Carbonate by Urea Glycerolysis Using Carbon-Supported Metal Oxide Catalysts. Molecules 2023; 28:6534. [PMID: 37764310 PMCID: PMC10538211 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The results of sustainable and selective synthesis of glycerol carbonate (GC) from urea and glycerol under ambient pressure using carbon-fiber-supported metal oxide catalysts are reported. Carbon fibers (CF) were prepared via a catalytic chemical vapor deposition method (CCVD) using Ni as a catalyst and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a cheap carbon source. Supported metal oxide catalysts were obtained by an incipient wetness impregnation technique using Zn, Ba, Cr, and Mg nitrates. Finally, the samples were pyrolyzed and oxidized in an air flow. The obtained catalysts (10%MexOy/CFox) were tested in the reaction of urea glycerolysis at 140 °C for 6 h under atmospheric pressure, using an equimolar ratio of reagents and an inert gas flow for NH3 removal. Under the applied conditions, all of the prepared catalysts increased the glycerol conversion and glycerol carbonate yield compared to the blank test, and the best catalytic performance was shown by the CFox-supported ZnO and MgO systems. Screening of the reaction conditions was carried out by applying ZnO/CFox as a catalyst and considering the effect of reaction temperature, molar ratio of reagents, and the mode of the inert gas flow through the reactor on the catalytic process. Finally, a maximum yield of GC of about 40%, together with a selectivity to glycerol carbonate of ~100%, was obtained within 6 h of reaction at 140 °C using a glycerol-to-urea molar ratio of 1:1 while flowing Ar through the reaction mixture. Furthermore, a positive heterogeneous catalytic effect of the CFox support on the process was noticed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Ptaszyńska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614 Poznań, Poland; (A.M.); (K.K.)
| | | | | | - Mieczysław Kozłowski
- Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614 Poznań, Poland; (A.M.); (K.K.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lesafi FJ, Pogrebnaya T, King'ondu CK. Mesoporous SnO 2-MoO 3 catalyst for diesel oxidative desulfurization: Impact of the SnO 2/MoO 3 ratio on catalytic efficiency. Heliyon 2023; 9:e19202. [PMID: 37654448 PMCID: PMC10465874 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Vehicular SOx emissions have a huge detrimental impact on public health, catalytic converters, and the environment. Developing strategies to remove sulfur from diesel and thus safeguard the above is imperative. A series of SnO2-MoO3 mixed oxides and mono oxides MoO3 and SnO2 were prepared by soft template method, calcined at 450 °C and successfully tested in model diesel oxidative desulfurisation (ODS). The impact of the SnO2/MoO3 mole ratio (hereinafter denoted as Sn/Mo) on catalytic efficiency was investigated, among other catalytic parameters. The obtained samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectrocscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), N2-physisorption and titration method for acidic properties. The study demonstrates that mixing SnO2 and MoO3 improves acidic sites, crystallinity, and morphological properties of pure SnO2. The addition of MoO3 increased oxygen vacancies and the surface area of SnO2. High acidic site densities of 49.3, 47.4, and 46.7 mEqg-1 were observed for the catalysts with 2:1, 1:1, and 1:2 Sn/Mo mole ratio, respectively. The catalytic efficiency increased with an increase in Sn content with the highest catalytic efficiency of 99.8% for the dibenzothiophene (DBT) oxidation achieved in 30 min for Sn/Mo (2:1) catalyst compared to 92 and 70% for Sn/Mo 1:1 and 1:2 catalysts, respectively. The rate constant for the reaction was 0.057 min-1, which is eight times that of MoO3; 0.007 min-1 and three times that of SnO2; 0.017 min-1. The ODS mechanism utilizing the SnO2-MoO3 catalyst was proposed. The prepared SnO2-MoO3 catalyst demonstrated a high potential for industrial desulfurisation applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fina J. Lesafi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering (MaSE), School of Materials, Energy, Water and Environmental Sciences (MEWES), Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Tatiana Pogrebnaya
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering (MaSE), School of Materials, Energy, Water and Environmental Sciences (MEWES), Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Cecil K. King'ondu
- Department of Chemical and Forensic Sciences, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Private Bag 16, Palapye, Botswana
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Richter J, Pietsch T, Elsner N, Ruck M. Critical Investigation of Betaine Hydrochloride-Based Deep Eutectic Solvent for Ionometallurgical Metal Production. ChemistryOpen 2023; 12:e202300114. [PMID: 37548281 PMCID: PMC10405249 DOI: 10.1002/open.202300114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The applicability of a deep eutectic solvent (DES) consisting of betainium hydrochloride, urea and glycerol is examined with respect to ionometallurgical metal extraction and compared with the ionic liquid (IL) betainium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([Hbet][NTf2 ]). The DES dissolves numerous metal oxides, where not only betaine and chloride act as stabilizing ligands, but also nascent ammonia seems to be essential. From such solutions, cobalt, copper, zinc, tin, lead, and even vanadium can be electrodeposited, demonstrating the feasibility of ionometallurgy. However, repeated recycling of the DES is not conceivable. NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry identify numerous decomposition reactions taking place at 60 °C already. The by-products that are formed not only make recycling more difficult, but also pose a toxicity problem. The opportunities and obstacles of DESs and ILs for their application in ionometallurgy are critically discussed. It is shown that a thorough understanding of the underlying chemical processes is critical.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janine Richter
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food ChemistryTechnische Universität Dresden01062DresdenGermany
| | - Tobias Pietsch
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food ChemistryTechnische Universität Dresden01062DresdenGermany
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Physics of SolidsNöthnitzer Str. 4001187DresdenGermany
| | - Noah Elsner
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food ChemistryTechnische Universität Dresden01062DresdenGermany
| | - Michael Ruck
- Faculty of Chemistry and Food ChemistryTechnische Universität Dresden01062DresdenGermany
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Physics of SolidsNöthnitzer Str. 4001187DresdenGermany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Pham-Ngoc N, Nguyen-Phu H, Shin EW. Effect of Calcination Temperatures on Surface Properties of Spinel ZnAl 2O 4 Prepared via the Polymeric Citrate Complex Method-Catalytic Performance in Glycerolysis of Urea. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:1901. [PMID: 37446417 DOI: 10.3390/nano13131901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated urea glycerolysis over ZnAl2O4 catalysts that were prepared by using a citrate complex method and the influence of calcination temperatures on the surface properties of the prepared catalysts by varying the calcination temperature from 550 °C to 850 °C. As the reciprocal substitution between Al3+ and Zn2+ cations led to the formation of a disordered bulk ZnAl2O4 phase, different calcination temperatures strongly influenced the surface properties of the ZnAl2O4 catalysts, including oxygen vacancy. The increase in the calcination temperature from 550 °C to 650 °C decreased the inversion parameter of the ZnAl2O4 structure (from 0.365 to 0.222 for AlO4 and 0.409 to 0.358 for ZnO6). The disordered ZnAl2O4 structure led to a decrease in the surface acidity. The ZnAl2O4-550 catalyst had a large specific surface area, along with highly disordered surface sites, which increased surface acidity, resulting in a stronger interaction of the Zn NCO complex on its surface and an improvement in catalytic performance. Fourier transform infrared and thermogravimetric analysis results of the spent catalysts demonstrated the formation of a greater amount of a solid Zn NCO complex over ZnAl2O4-550 than ZnAl2O4-650. Consequently, the ZnAl2O4-550 catalyst outperformed the ZnAl2O4-650 catalyst in terms of glycerol conversion (72%), glycerol carbonate yield (33%), and byproduct formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nhiem Pham-Ngoc
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Ulsan Daehakro 93, Nam-gu, Ulsan 44610, Republic of Korea
| | - Huy Nguyen-Phu
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul 01811, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Woo Shin
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Ulsan Daehakro 93, Nam-gu, Ulsan 44610, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Anderlini B, Ughetti A, Cristoni E, Forti L, Rigamonti L, Roncaglia F. Upgrading of Biobased Glycerol to Glycerol Carbonate as a Tool to Reduce the CO 2 Emissions of the Biodiesel Fuel Life Cycle. BIOENGINEERING (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 9:bioengineering9120778. [PMID: 36550984 PMCID: PMC9774724 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering9120778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
With regards to oil-based diesel fuel, the adoption of bio-derived diesel fuel was estimated to reduce CO2 emissions by approximately 75%, considering the whole life cycle. In this paper, we present a novel continuous-flow process able to transfer an equimolar amount of CO2 (through urea) to glycerol, producing glycerol carbonate. This represents a convenient tool, able to both improve the efficiency of the biodiesel production through the conversion of waste streams into added-value chemicals and to beneficially contribute to the whole carbon cycle. By means of a Design of Experiments approach, the influence of key operating variables on the product yield was studied and statistically modeled.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Biagio Anderlini
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Alberto Ughetti
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Emma Cristoni
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Luca Forti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Luca Rigamonti
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre H2-MORE, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Università 4, 41121 Modena, Italy
- INSTM Research Unit of Modena, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Roncaglia
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre H2-MORE, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Università 4, 41121 Modena, Italy
- INSTM Research Unit of Modena, Via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Utilization of biofuels generated from renewable sources has attracted broad attention due to their benefits such as reducing consumption of fossil fuels, sustainability, and consequently prevention of global warming. The production of biodiesel causes a huge amount of by-product, crude glycerol, to accumulate. Glycerol, because of its unique structure having three hydroxyl groups, can be converted to a variety of industrially valuable products. In recent decades, increasing studies have been carried out on different catalytic pathways to selectively produce a wide range of glycerol derivatives. In the current review, the main routes including carboxylation, oxidation, etherification, hydrogenolysis, esterification, and dehydration to convert glycerol to value-added products are investigated. In order to achieve more glycerol conversion and higher desired product selectivity, acquisition of knowledge on the catalysts, the type of acidic or basic, the supports, and studying various reaction pathways and operating parameters are necessary. This review attempts to summarize the knowledge of catalytic reactions and mechanisms leading to value-added derivatives of glycerol. Additionally, the application of main products from glycerol are discussed. In addition, an overview on the market of glycerol, its properties, applications, and prospects is presented.
Collapse
|
8
|
Li Y, Liu H, Zheng Z, Fu Z, He D, Zhang Q. Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate via Alcoholysis of Urea with Glycerol: Current Status and Future Prospects. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c00667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuqiao Li
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Liaoning University of Technology, Jinzhou 121001, China
| | - Huimin Liu
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Liaoning University of Technology, Jinzhou 121001, China
| | - Ze Zheng
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Liaoning University of Technology, Jinzhou 121001, China
| | - Zhu Fu
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Liaoning University of Technology, Jinzhou 121001, China
| | - Dehua He
- Innovative Catalysis Program, Key Lab of Organic Optoelectronics & Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Qijian Zhang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Liaoning University of Technology, Jinzhou 121001, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
In recent years, the development of renewable energy alternatives to traditional fossil fuels has become one of the major challenges all over the world, due to the decline of fossil fuel reserves and their effect on global warming. Biodiesel has become a popular alternative energy source to reduce gas emissions compared to traditional fossil fuels. According to statistics, a nine-fold increase in global biofuel production between 2000 and 2020 was observed. However, its production generates a large amount of glycerol as a by-product, posing an environmental problem when disposed directly in landfills or by incineration. Therefore, low-value glycerol should be converted into high value-added derivatives. As glycerol carbonate is one of the most important derivatives of glycerol, this review aims to discuss the studies over the last ten years about glycerol carbonate synthetic methods, including the typical routes such as phosgene, esterification reaction, urea, oxidative and direct carbonylation as well as several rare synthetic procedures. At the same time, it summarizes the different catalytic reaction systems of each route comparing the advantages and disadvantages of various catalysts and evaluating their catalytic activity. Finally, the future development of glycerol carbonate synthesis is prospected from the point of view of development, technology research and industrialization.
Collapse
|
10
|
Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate from Glycerol and Dimethyl Carbonate Catalyzed by Solid Base Catalyst Derived from Waste Carbide Slag. INT J POLYM SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1155/2021/9300442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Na2CO3 was loaded onto waste carbide slag (CS) by impregnation-calcination method to prepare the solid base catalyst, which was used to synthesize glycerol carbonate (GC) by the transesterification of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate (DMC). The prepared catalysts were characterized by a scanning electron microscope (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Brunner−Emmet−Teller (BET) techniques. The catalyst 15 wt.% Na2CO3-CS-800, which was prepared by impregnating CS to the Na2CO3 solution with the concentration of 15 wt.% weight of CS and calcined at 800°C for 3 hours, showed an excellent catalytic ability. When it was applied in the catalytic synthesis of GC, 98.1% glycerol conversion and 96.0% GC yield were achieved in 90 mins at 75°C with the catalyst dosage of 3 wt.% to total reactants and the DMC to glycerol molar ratio of 5. More importantly, the loading of Na2CO3 can effectively improve the reusability of catalyst. The 15 wt.% Na2CO3-CS-800 can still achieve 83.6% glycerol conversion and 80.5% GC yield after five-time reuse. Meanwhile, under the same reaction conditions, the CS-800, which was obtained by calcining CS at 800°C for 3 hours, experienced significant activity reduction with only 15.2% glycerol conversion and 14.1% GC yield after five-time reuse. FTIR and XRD characterization revealed that CO32- might play a key role in preserving active catalytic CaO component by forming protective CaCO3 shell on the catalyst surface.
Collapse
|
11
|
Sudarsanam P, Gupta NK, Mallesham B, Singh N, Kalbande PN, Reddy BM, Sels BF. Supported MoO x and WO x Solid Acids for Biomass Valorization: Interplay of Coordination Chemistry, Acidity, and Catalysis. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c03326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Putla Sudarsanam
- Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411 008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002, India
| | - Navneet Kumar Gupta
- Technical University of Darmstadt, Department of Chemistry, Ernst-Berl-Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie, Alarich-Weiss-Straße 8, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Baithy Mallesham
- Chemical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, Sangareddy 502285, India
| | - Nittan Singh
- Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411 008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002, India
| | - Pavan Narayan Kalbande
- Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411 008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002, India
| | - Benjaram M. Reddy
- Catalysis and Fine Chemicals Department, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
| | - Bert F. Sels
- Center for Sustainable Catalysis and Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Structure–Activity Relationships of WOx-Promoted TiO2–ZrO2 Solid Acid Catalyst for Acetalization and Ketalization of Glycerol towards Biofuel Additives. Catal Letters 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10562-021-03733-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
13
|
Abstract
Once a biorefinery is ready to operate, the main processed materials need to be completely evaluated in terms of many different factors, including disposal regulations, technological limitations of installation, the market, and other societal considerations. In biorefinery, glycerol is the main by-product, representing around 10% of biodiesel production. In the last few decades, the large-scale production of biodiesel and glycerol has promoted research on a wide range of strategies in an attempt to valorize this by-product, with its transformation into added value chemicals being the strategy that exhibits the most promising route. Among them, C3 compounds obtained from routes such as hydrogenation, oxidation, esterification, etc. represent an alternative to petroleum-based routes for chemicals such as acrolein, propanediols, or carboxylic acids of interest for the polymer industry. Another widely studied and developed strategy includes processes such as reforming or pyrolysis for energy, clean fuels, and materials such as activated carbon. This review covers recent advances in catalysts used in the most promising strategies considering both chemicals and energy or fuel obtention. Due to the large variety in biorefinery industries, several potential emergent valorization routes are briefly summarized.
Collapse
|