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Tibbs E, Cao X. Emerging Canonical and Non-Canonical Roles of Granzyme B in Health and Disease. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:1436. [PMID: 35326588 PMCID: PMC8946077 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14061436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Granzyme (Gzm) family has classically been recognized as a cytotoxic tool utilized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cells to illicit cell death to infected and cancerous cells. Their importance is established based on evidence showing that deficiencies in these cell death executors result in defective immune responses. Recent findings have shown the importance of Granzyme B (GzmB) in regulatory immune cells, which may contribute to tumor growth and immune evasion during cancer development. Other studies have shown that members of the Gzm family are important for biological processes such as extracellular matrix remodeling, angiogenesis and organized vascular degradation. With this growing body of evidence, it is becoming more important to understand the broader function of Gzm's rather than a specific executor of cell death, and we should be aware of the many alternative roles that Gzm's play in physiological and pathological conditions. Therefore, we review the classical as well as novel non-canonical functions of GzmB and discuss approaches to utilize these new findings to address current gaps in our understanding of the immune system and tissue development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellis Tibbs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA;
| | - Xuefang Cao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA;
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Tu WW, Ji LD, Qian HX, Zhou M, Zhao JS, Xu J. Tributyltin induces disruption of microfilament in HL7702 cells via MAPK-mediated hyperphosphorylation of VASP. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2016; 31:1530-1538. [PMID: 26018654 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 05/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Tributyltin (TBT) has been widely used for various industrial purposes, and it has toxic effects on multiple organs and tissues. Previous studies have found that TBT could induce cytoskeletal disruption, especially of the actin filaments. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to determine whether TBT could induce microfilament disruption using HL7702 cells and then to assess for the total levels of various microfilament-associated proteins; finally, the involvement of the MAPK pathway was investigated. The results showed that after TBT treatment, F-actin began to depolymerize and lost its characteristic filamentous structure. The protein levels of Ezrin and Cofilin remained unchanged, the actin-related protein (ARP) 2/3 levels decreased slightly, and the vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) decreased dramatically. However, the phosphorylation levels of VASP increased 2.5-fold, and the ratio of phosphorylated-VASP/unphosphorylated-VASP increased 31-fold. The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) ERK and JNK were discovered to be activated. Inhibition of ERK and JNK not only largely diminished the TBT-induced hyperphosphorylation of VASP but also recovered the cellular morphology and rescued the cells from death. In summary, this study demonstrates that TBT-induced disruption of actin filaments is caused by the hyperphosphorylation of VASP through MAPK pathways. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 31: 1530-1538, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Wei Tu
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Lin-Dan Ji
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Hai-Xia Qian
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Mi Zhou
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Jin-Shun Zhao
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Jin Xu
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China.
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, 818 Fenghua Road, Ningbo, 315211, China.
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Cato A, Celada L, Kibakaya EC, Simmons N, Whalen MM. Brominated flame retardants, tetrabromobisphenol A and hexabromocyclododecane, activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in human natural killer cells. Cell Biol Toxicol 2014; 30:345-60. [PMID: 25341744 PMCID: PMC4246052 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-014-9289-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells provide a vital surveillance against virally infected cells, tumor cells, and antibody-coated cells through the release of cytolytic mediators and gamma interferon (IFN-γ). Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) is a brominated flame retardant used primarily in expanded (EPS) and extruded (XPS) polystyrene foams for thermal insulation in the building and construction industry. Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is used both as a reactive and an additive flame retardant in a variety of materials. HBCD and TBBPA contaminate the environment and are found in human blood samples. In previous studies, we have shown that other environmental contaminants, such as the dibutyltin (DBT) and tributyltin (TBT), decrease NK lytic function by activating mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the NK cells. HBCD and TBBPA also interfere with NK cell(s) lytic function. The current study evaluates whether HBCD and/or TBBPA have the capacity to activate MAPKs and MAPK kinases (MAP2Ks). The effects of concentrations of HBCD and TBBPA that inhibited lytic function on the phosphorylation state and total levels of the MAPKs (p44/42, p38, and JNK) and the phosphorylation and total levels of the MAP2Ks (MEK1/2 and MKK3/6) were examined. Results indicate that exposure of human NK cells to 10-0.5 μM HBCD or TBBPA activate MAPKs and MAP2Ks. This HBCD and TBBPA-induced activation of MAPKs may leave them unavailable for activation by virally infected or tumor target cells and thus contributes to the observed decreases in lytic function seen in NK cells exposed to HBCD and TBBPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Cato
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
| | - Lindsay Celada
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
| | | | - Nadia Simmons
- Department of Chemistry, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
| | - Margaret M. Whalen
- Department of Chemistry, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
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4
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Wang Y, Wang S, Luo X, Yang Y, Jian F, Wang X, Xie L. The roles of DNA damage-dependent signals and MAPK cascades in tributyltin-induced germline apoptosis in Caenorhabditis elegans. CHEMOSPHERE 2014; 108:231-238. [PMID: 24534158 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.01.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Revised: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/11/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The induction of apoptosis is recognized to be a major mechanism of tributyltin (TBT) toxicity. However, the underlying signaling pathways for TBT-induced apoptosis remain unclear. In this study, using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we examined whether DNA damage response (DDR) pathway and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascades are involved in TBT-induced germline apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Our results demonstrated that exposing worms to TBT at the dose of 10nM for 6h significantly increased germline apoptosis in N2 strain. Germline apoptosis was absent in strains that carried ced-3 or ced-4 loss-of-function alleles, indicating that both caspase protein CED-3 and Apaf-1 protein CED-4 were required for TBT-induced apoptosis. TBT-induced apoptosis was blocked in the Bcl-2 gain-of-function strain ced-9(n1950), whereas TBT induced a minor increase in the BH3-only protein EGL-1 mutated strain egl-1(n1084n3082). Checkpoint proteins HUS-1 and CLK-2 exerted proapoptotic effects, and the null mutation of cep-1, the homologue of tumor suppressor gene p53, significantly inhibited TBT-induced apoptosis. Apoptosis in the loss-of-function strains of ERK, JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways were completely or mildly suppressed under TBT stress. These results were supported by the results of mRNA expression levels of corresponding genes. The present study indicated that TBT-induced apoptosis required the core apoptotic machinery, and that DDR genes and MAPK pathways played essential roles in signaling the processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Wang
- Department of Life Sciences, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, Anhui 232001, PR China.
| | - Shunchang Wang
- Department of Life Sciences, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, Anhui 232001, PR China
| | - Xun Luo
- Department of Life Sciences, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, Anhui 232001, PR China
| | - Yanan Yang
- Department of Life Sciences, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, Anhui 232001, PR China
| | - Fenglei Jian
- Department of Life Sciences, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, Anhui 232001, PR China
| | - Xuemin Wang
- Department of Life Sciences, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, Anhui 232001, PR China
| | - Lucheng Xie
- Department of Life Sciences, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, Anhui 232001, PR China
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Zhang Y, Chen Y, Sun L, Liang J, Guo Z, Xu L. Protein phosphatases 2A as well as reactive oxygen species involved in tributyltin-induced apoptosis in mouse livers. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2014; 29:234-242. [PMID: 22223438 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Tributyltin (TBT), a highly toxic environmental contaminant, has been shown to induce caspase-3-dependent apoptosis in human amniotic cells through protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) inhibition and consequent JNK activation. This in vivo study was undertaken to further verify the results derived from our previous in vitro study. Mice were orally dosed with 0, 10, 20, and 60 mg/kg of body weight TBT, and levels of PP2A, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Bax/Bcl-2, and caspase-3 were detected in the mouse livers. Apoptosis was also evaluated using the TUNEL assay. The results showed that PP2A activity was inhibited, ROS levels were elevated, and MAPKs including ERK, JNK, and p38 were activated in mouse livers treated with the highest dose of TBT. Additionally, the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 was increased, caspase-3 was activated, and apoptosis in mouse livers could be detected in the highest dose group. Therefore, a possible signaling pathway in TBT-induced apoptosis in mouse livers involves PP2A inhibition and ROS elevation serving a pivotal function as upstream activators of MAPKs; activation of MAPKs in turn leads to an increase in the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, ultimately leading to the activation of caspase-3. The results give a comprehensive and novel description of the mechanism of TBT-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, School of medicine, Zhejiang University, 866th Yu Hang Tang Road, 310058, Hangzhou, China
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Taylor TR, Whalen MM. Ziram activates mitogen-activated protein kinases and decreases cytolytic protein levels in human natural killer cells. Toxicol Mech Methods 2011; 21:577-84. [PMID: 21859362 DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2011.578170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human natural killer (NK) cells are central in immune defense with their ability to lyse tumor cells and virally infected cells. Tumor formation and viral infection may increase if NK cytotoxic function is disrupted. Ziram (zinc dithiocarbamate) is used as an accelerating agent in the production of latex and to protect various fruits and vegetables from fungal infection. Previously, we have shown that exposure to ziram inhibits NK lytic function. Butyltin environmental contaminants, which also inhibit NK lytic function, cause rapid activations of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and decreases in expression of the cytolytic proteins granzyme B and perforin (after 24 h) in exposed NK cells. MAPKs are important regulators of the lytic response of NK cells, and spurious activation of these enzymes by contaminants would leave the NK cells unable to respond to appropriate targets. This study examined the effects of ziram exposures on MAPKs (p44/42, p38, and c-jun-N-terminal kinase) and on levels of cytolytic proteins. Ten-minute to 6-h exposures of NK cells to ziram caused activation of MAPKs, p44/42, and p38. Exposure to ziram for 24 h caused a decrease in granzyme B and perforin levels. MAPK inhibitors were able to prevent these ziram-induced decreases in granzyme B and perforin. These results suggest that ziram-induced MAPK activation is at least in part responsible for decreased cytolytic function in ziram-exposed NK cells. Furthermore, the results indicate that these changes are in common with other environmental contaminants that have been shown to decrease NK lytic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thyneice R Taylor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University , Nashville, TN 37209 , USA
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Dudimah FD, Abraha A, Wang X, Whalen MM. Activation of p44/42 in human natural killer cells decreases cell-surface protein expression: Relationship to tributyltin-induced alterations of protein expression. Toxicol Mech Methods 2010; 20:544-55. [PMID: 20883105 PMCID: PMC2962685 DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2010.518174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Tributyltin (TBT) activates the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK), p44/42 in human natural killer (NK) cells. TBT also reduces NK cytotoxic function and decreases the expression of several NK-cell proteins. To understand the role that p44/42 activation plays in TBT-induced loss of NK cell function, this study investigated how selective activation of p44/42 by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) affects NK cells. Previously it was shown that PMA caused losses of lytic function similar to those seen with TBT exposures. This study examined activation of p44/42 in the regulation of NK-cell protein expression and how this regulation may explain the protein expression changes seen with TBT exposures. NK cells exposed to PMA were examined for levels of cell-surface proteins, granzyme mRNA, and perforin mRNA expression. The expression of CD11a, CD16, CD18, and CD56 were reduced, perforin mRNA levels were unchanged, and granzyme mRNA levels were increased. To verify that activation of p44/42 was responsible for the alterations seen in CD11a, CD16, CD18, and CD56 with PMA, NK cells were treated with the p44/42 pathway inhibitor (PD98059) prior to PMA exposures. In the presence of PD98059, PMA caused no decreases in the expression of the cell-surface proteins. Results of these studies indicate that the activation of p44/42 may lead to the loss of NK cell cytotoxic function by decreasing the expression of CD11a, CD16, CD18, and CD56. Further, activation of p44/42 appears to be at least in part responsible for the TBT-induced decreases in expression of CD16, CD18, and CD56.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred D Dudimah
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209, USA
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Abraha AB, Rana K, Whalen MM. Role of protein kinase C in TBT-induced inhibition of lytic function and MAPK activation in human natural killer cells. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2010; 59:661-669. [PMID: 20390410 PMCID: PMC2909453 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-010-9520-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Human natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes that destroy tumor and virally infected cells. Previous studies have shown that exposure of NK cells to tributyltin (TBT) greatly diminishes their ability to destroy tumor cells (lytic function) while activating mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) (p44/42, p38, and JNK) in NK cells. The signaling pathway that regulates NK lytic function appears to include activation of protein kinase C(PKC) as well as MAPK activity. TBT-induced activation of MAPKs would trigger a portion of the NK lytic signaling pathway, which would then leave the NK cell unable to trigger this pathway in response to a subsequent encounter with a target cell. In the present study we evaluated the involvement of PKC in inhibition of NK lysis of tumor cells and activation of MAPKs caused by TBT exposure. TBT caused a 2–3-fold activation of PKC at concentrations ranging from 50 to 300 nM (16–98 ng/ml),indicating that activation of PKC occurs in response to TBT exposure. This would then leave the NK cell unable to respond to targets. Treatment with the PKC inhibitor, bisindolylmaleimide I, caused an 85% decrease in the ability of NK cells to lyse tumor cells, validating the involvement of PKC in the lytic signaling pathway. The role of PKC in the activation of MAPKs by TBT was also investigated using bisindolylmaleimide I. The results indicated that, in NK cells where PKC activation was blocked, there was no activation of the MAPK, p44/42 in response to TBT.However, TBT-induced activation of the MAPKs, p38 and JNK did not require PKC activation. These results indicate the pivotal role of PKC in the TBT-induced loss of NK lytic function including activation of p44/42 by TBT in NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abraham B. Abraha
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209, USA
| | - Krupa Rana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209, USA
| | - Margaret M. Whalen
- Department of Chemistry, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209, USA
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Odman-Ghazi SO, Abraha A, Isom ET, Whalen MM. Dibutyltin activates MAP kinases in human natural killer cells, in vitro. Cell Biol Toxicol 2010; 26:469-79. [PMID: 20333459 PMCID: PMC2892640 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-010-9157-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that dibutyltin (DBT) interferes with the function of human natural killer (NK) cells, diminishing their capacity to destroy tumor cells, in vitro. DBT is a widespread environmental contaminant and has been found in human blood. As NK cells are our primary immune defense against tumor cells, it is important to understand the mechanism by which DBT interferes with their function. The current study examines the effects of DBT exposures on key enzymes in the signaling pathway that regulates NK responsiveness to tumor cells. These include several protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MAP2Ks). The results showed that in vitro exposures of NK cells to DBT had no effect on PTKs. However, exposures to DBT for as little as 10 min were able to increase the phosphorylation (activation) of the MAPKs. The DBT-induced activations of these MAPKs appear to be due to DBT-induced activations of the immediate upstream activators of the MAPKs, MAP2Ks. The results suggest that DBT-interference with the MAPK signaling pathway is a consequence of DBT exposures, which could account for DBT-induced decreases in NK function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabah O. Odman-Ghazi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
| | - Abraham Abraha
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
| | - Erica Taylor Isom
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
| | - Margaret M. Whalen
- Department of Chemistry, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN 37209
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