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Ganglo C, Manfrin A, Mendoza-Lera C, Lorke A. Effects of chironomid larvae density and mosquito biocide on methane and carbon dioxide dynamics in freshwater sediments. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301913. [PMID: 38787834 PMCID: PMC11125464 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Small lentic water bodies are important emitters of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), but the processes regulating their dynamics and susceptibility to human-induced stressors are not fully understood. Bioturbation by chironomid larvae has been proposed as a potentially important factor controlling the dynamics of both gases in aquatic sediments. Chironomid abundance can be affected by the application of biocides for mosquito control, such as Bti (Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis). Previous research has attributed increases in CH4 and CO2 emissions after Bti application to reduced bioturbation by chironomids. In this study, we separately tested the effect of chironomid bioturbation and Bti addition on CH4 production and emission from natural sediments. In a set of 15 microcosms, we compared CH4 and CO2 emission and production rates with high and low densities of chironomid larvae at the bioturbating stage, and standard and five times (5x) standard Bti dose, with control sediments that contained neither chironomid larvae nor Bti. Regardless of larvae density, chironomid larvae did not affect CH4 nor CO2 emission and production of the sediment, although both rates were more variable in the treatments with organisms. 5xBti dosage, however, led to a more than three-fold increase in CH4 and CO2 production rates, likely stimulated by bioavailable dissolved carbon in the Bti excipient and priming effects. Our results suggest weak effects of bioturbating chironomid larvae on the CH4 and CO2 dynamics in aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, our results point out towards potential functional implications of Bti for carbon cycling beyond those mediated by changes in the macroinvertebrate community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Ganglo
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Landau, Germany
| | - Alessandro Manfrin
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Landau, Germany
| | - Clara Mendoza-Lera
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Landau, Germany
| | - Andreas Lorke
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Landau, Germany
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2
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Lu J, Sha H, Chen J, Yi X, Xiong J. Characterizing sediment functional traits and ecological consequences respond to increasing antibiotic pollution. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023:10.1007/s00253-023-12572-7. [PMID: 37191684 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12572-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Current studies have shown that the taxonomic structures of ecologically important microbial communities are altered by antibiotic exposure, but the resulting effects on functional potentials and subsequent biogeochemical processes are poorly understood. However, this knowledge is indispensable for developing an accurate projection of nutrient dynamics in the future. Using metagenomic analyses, here we explored the responses of taxonomical and functional structures of a sediment microbial community, and their links with key biogeochemical processes to increasing antibiotic pollution from the pristine inlet to the outfall sites along an aquaculture discharge channel. We identified sharply contrasting sedimentary microbial communities and functional traits along increasing antibiotic pollution. Functional structures exhibited steeper distance-decay relationships than taxonomical structures along both the antibiotic distance and physicochemical distance, revealing higher functional sensitivity. Sediment enzyme activities were significantly and positively coupled with the relative abundances of their coding genes, thus the abundances of genes were indicative of functional potentials. The nitrogen cycling pathways were commonly inhibited by antibiotics, but not for the first step of nitrification, which could synergistically mitigate nitrous oxide emission. However, antibiotic pollution stimulated methanogens and inhibited methanotrophs, thereby promoting methane efflux. Furthermore, microbes could adapt to antibiotic pollution through enriched potential of sulfate uptake. Antibiotics indirectly affected taxonomic structures through alterations in network topological features, which in turn affected sediment functional structures and biogeochemical processes. Notably, only 13 antibiotics concentration-discriminatory genes contributed an overall 95.9% accuracy in diagnosing in situ antibiotic concentrations, in which just two indicators were antibiotic resistance genes. Our study comprehensively integrates sediment compositional and functional traits, biotic interactions, and enzymatic activities, thus generating a better understanding about ecological consequences of increasing antibiotics pollution. KEY POINTS: • Contrasting functional traits respond to increasing antibiotic pollution. • Antibiotics pollution stimulates CH4 efflux, while mitigating N2O emission and may drive an adaptive response of enriched sulfate uptake. • Indicator genes contribute 95.9% accuracy in diagnosing antibiotic concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqi Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Ningbo University, 315211, Ningbo, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Haonan Sha
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Ningbo University, 315211, Ningbo, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Jiong Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Ningbo University, 315211, Ningbo, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Xianghua Yi
- Lanshion Marine Science and Technology Co., Ltd, Ningbo, 315715, China
| | - Jinbo Xiong
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Ningbo University, 315211, Ningbo, China.
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Zhejiang Province, School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China.
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3
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Zhang Z, Xu Z, Wang X. The greenhouse effect of antibiotics: The influence pathways of antibiotics on methane release from freshwater sediment. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 176:107964. [PMID: 37209487 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The impact of antibiotics on methane (CH4) release from sediment involves both CH4 production and consumption processes. However, most relevant studies lack a discussion of the pathways by which antibiotics affect CH4 release and do not highlight the role played by the sediment chemical environment in this influence mechanism. Here, we collected field surface sediments and grouped them with various antibiotic combination concentration gradients (50, 100, 500, 1000 ng g-1) under a 35-day indoor anaerobic constant temperature incubation. We found that the positive effect of antibiotics on sediment CH4 release potential appeared later than the positive effect on sediment CH4 release flux. Still, the positive effect of high-concentration antibiotics (500, 1000 ng g-1) occurred with a lag in both processes. Also, the positive effect of high-concentration antibiotics was significantly higher than low-concentration antibiotics (50, 100 ng g-1) in the later incubation period (p < 0.05). We performed a multi-collinearity assessment of sediment biochemical indicators, followed by a generalized linear model with negative binomial regression (GLM-NB) to obtain essential variables. In particular, we conducted the interaction analysis on CH4 release potential and flux regression for the influence pathways construction. The partial least-squares path modeling (PLS-PM) demonstrated that the positive effect of antibiotics on CH4 release (Total effect = 0.2579) was primarily attributed to their effect on the sediment chemical environment (Direct effect = 0.5107). These findings greatly expand our understanding of the antibiotic greenhouse effect in freshwater sediment. Further studies should more carefully consider the effects of antibiotics on the sediment chemical environment, and continuously improve the mechanistic studies of antibiotics on sediment CH4 release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqi Zhang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Zhinan Xu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Xiangrong Wang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China; Research Center for Urban Ecological Planning and Design, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
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4
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Wang J, Wang X, Zheng X, Yang Y, He Z, Zhang L, Liao Q. Effects of florfenicol on methane accumulation and changes in the structure of the prokaryotic community in a water-sediment system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 847:157444. [PMID: 35868376 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Florfenicol has been widely used in the veterinary and aquaculture to control bacterial diseases because of its high efficacy, quick effect, and low cost. The water-sediment system has become an important sink for florfenicol, and the anaerobic environment of lake sediments is favorable for methane (CH4) production. Although antibiotics may impact methanogenesis under anaerobic conditions, the influence of florfenicol on CH4 accumulation in anaerobic water-sediment system remains uncertain. This study evaluated how florfenicol affects CH4 accumulation and the structure of the prokaryotic community in a water-sediment system. Anaerobic systems with different florfenicol concentrations (0, 0.2, 1, 5 and 10 mg/L) were incubated and CH4 accumulation, pH, total organic carbon content, degradation ratio of florfenicol, and structure of the prokaryotic community were monitored. It was found that CH4 accumulation raised in low florfenicol (0.2 and 1 mg/L) systems during the growth period, while CH4 accumulation declined in high florfenicol (5 and 10 mg/L) systems. In the first 13 d, 83.67-99.30 % of florfenicol degraded in different treatments. The addition of florfenicol also influenced the structure of the prokaryotic community of the sediments. Proteobacteria and Chloroflexi were dominant at the phylum level. The dominant taxa at the order level gradually changed from Methanomicrobiales to Methanobacteriales, and finally to Methanosarcinales, indicating the dynamic transformation of methanogens in the reactor. This study reveals the effects of florfenicol on CH4 production under anaerobic conditions and provides a theoretical basis for further research on the underlying mechanisms. The findings also provide some basic data on the impact of new pollutants on the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinling Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Xinyu Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Xiaolan Zheng
- Department of Environmental Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Ye Yang
- Department of Environmental Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Zhenkai He
- Department of Environmental Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Qianjiahua Liao
- Department of Environmental Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China.
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5
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Zhao Y, Jiang H, Wang X, Liu C, Yang Y. Quinolone antibiotics enhance denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation in Wetland sediments: Counterintuitive results. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 305:119300. [PMID: 35427678 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Denitrifying anaerobic methane oxidation (DAMO) plays an important role in the element cycle of wetlands. In recent years, the content of antibiotics in wetlands has gradually increased due to human activities. However, the impact of antibiotics on the ecological function of DAMO remains unclear. Here we studied the influence of three high-content quinolone antibiotics (QNs) on DAMO in the sediments of the Baiyangdian Wetland. The results show that QNs can significantly promote the potential DAMO rates. Moreover, the enhancement of potential DAMO rates is positively correlated with the dosage of QNs. This promotion effect of QNs on nitrate-DAMO can be attributed to the hormesis phenomenon or their inhibition of substrate competitors. As antibacterial agents, QNs inhibit nitrite-DAMO conducted by bacteria, but greatly promote nitrate-DAMO conducted by archaea. These results suggest that the short-term effect of QNs on DAMO in wetlands is promotion rather than inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuewen Zhao
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Cycling and Eco-Geological Processes, Xiamen, 361021, China; Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang, 050061, China; State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China; Key Laboratory of Groundwater Sciences and Engineering, Ministry of Natural Resources, Shijiazhuang, 050800, China
| | - Hongchen Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China.
| | - Xiuyan Wang
- Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang, 050061, China; Key Laboratory of Groundwater Sciences and Engineering, Ministry of Natural Resources, Shijiazhuang, 050800, China
| | - Changli Liu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Cycling and Eco-Geological Processes, Xiamen, 361021, China; Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang, 050061, China
| | - Yuqi Yang
- School of Water Resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
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Zhang H, Yang L, Li Y, Wang C, Zhang W, Wang L, Niu L. Pollution gradients shape the co-occurrence networks and interactions of sedimentary bacterial communities in Taihu Lake, a shallow eutrophic lake. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 305:114380. [PMID: 34995945 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The co-occurrence networks and interactions of bacterial communities in sediments are highly variable with environmental factors, which are vital to the nutrient biogeochemical cycle, pollutants biodegradation, and microbial community stability in lake ecosystems. Although pollution gradients reflect environmental variation comprehensively, few studies have characterized the changes in co-occurrence networks and interactions of bacterial communities along sediment pollution gradients. In order to investigate the impact of pollution gradients on compositions, co-occurrence networks, and interactions of sedimentary microbial communities, we studied the bacterial communities in the sediments of a typical shallow eutrophic lake, Taihu Lake, along pollution gradients using 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing technology. All the sediment sampling sites were classified into mild, moderate, and severe pollution groups according to the sediments' physicochemical properties. Our results showed that the taxon richness was lowest in the severe pollution group, and the diversity of species decreased with the level of pollution. The complexity of the co-occurrence network decreased as the level of pollution increased, and the severe pollution group was characterized by a small-world network. The relative abundance of Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Chlorobi increased significantly as the level of pollution increased (P < 0.05). Strong inter-phyla co-occurrence or co-exclusion patterns demonstrated that the strength of interactions was enhanced in the severe pollution group, indicating stronger cooperative or competitive relationships. Chloroflexales and Chlorobiales were unique keystone taxa in the severe pollution group. The results of this study indicate that severe pollution reduces microbial diversity and network complexity, which may lead to community instability. The competition for nutrients of some copiotrophic bacteria may be enhanced as the level of pollution increased. The unique keystone taxa may contribute to photosynthesis and pollutant degradation in the severe pollution group. These findings expand our understanding of variation in bacterial co-occurrence networks and interactions along sediment pollution gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanjun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Liu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Yi Li
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China.
| | - Chao Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China.
| | - Wenlong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Longfei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Lihua Niu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
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Bani A, Randall KC, Clark DR, Gregson BH, Henderson DK, Losty EC, Ferguson RM. Mind the gaps: What do we know about how multiple chemical stressors impact freshwater aquatic microbiomes? ADV ECOL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aecr.2022.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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8
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Bollinger E, Zubrod JP, Lai FY, Ahrens L, Filker S, Lorke A, Bundschuh M. Antibiotics as a silent driver of climate change? A case study investigating methane production in freshwater sediments. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 228:113025. [PMID: 34847437 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.113025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Methane (CH4) is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO2) and is inter alia produced in natural freshwater ecosystems. Given the rise in CH4 emissions from natural sources, researchers are investigating environmental factors and climate change feedbacks to explain this increment. Despite being omnipresent in freshwaters, knowledge on the influence of chemical stressors of anthropogenic origin (e.g., antibiotics) on methanogenesis is lacking. To address this knowledge gap, we incubated freshwater sediment under anaerobic conditions with a mixture of five antibiotics at four levels (from 0 to 5000 µg/L) for 42 days. Weekly measurements of CH4 and CO2 in the headspace, as well as their compound-specific δ13C, showed that the CH4 production rate was increased by up to 94% at 5000 µg/L and up to 29% at field-relevant concentrations (i.e., 50 µg/L). Metabarcoding of the archaeal and eubacterial 16S rRNA gene showed that effects of antibiotics on bacterial community level (i.e., species composition) may partially explain the observed differences in CH4 production rates. Despite the complications of transferring experimental CH4 production rates to realistic field conditions, the study indicated that chemical stressors contribute to the emissions of greenhouse gases by affecting the methanogenesis in freshwaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bollinger
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany; Eusserthal Ecosystem Research Station, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany
| | - J P Zubrod
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany; Eusserthal Ecosystem Research Station, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany
| | - F Y Lai
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Sweden
| | - L Ahrens
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Sweden
| | - S Filker
- Department of Molecular Ecology, University of Technology Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - A Lorke
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany
| | - M Bundschuh
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany; Eusserthal Ecosystem Research Station, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany; Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Sweden.
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Borsetto C, Raguideau S, Travis E, Kim DW, Lee DH, Bottrill A, Stark R, Song L, Cha CJ, Pearson J, Quince C, Singer AC, Wellington EMH. Impact of sulfamethoxazole on a riverine microbiome. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 201:117382. [PMID: 34225233 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The continued emergence of bacterial pathogens presenting antimicrobial resistance is widely recognised as a global health threat and recent attention focused on potential environmental reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Freshwater environments such as rivers represent a potential hotspot for ARGs and antibiotic resistant bacteria as they are receiving systems for effluent discharges from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Effluent also contains low levels of different antimicrobials including antibiotics and biocides. Sulfonamides are antibacterial chemicals widely used in clinical, veterinary and agricultural settings and are frequently detected in sewage sludge and manure in addition to riverine ecosystems. The impact of such exposure on ARG prevalence and diversity is unknown, so the aim of this study was to investigate the release of a sub-lethal concentration of the sulfonamide compound sulfamethoxazole (SMX) on the river bacterial microbiome using a flume system. This system was a semi-natural in vitro flume using river water (30 L) and sediment (6 kg) with circulation to mimic river flow. A combination of 'omics' approaches were conducted to study the impact of SMX exposure on the microbiomes within the flumes. Metagenomic analysis showed that the addition of low concentrations of SMX (<4 μg L-1) had a limited effect on the bacterial resistome in the water fraction only, with no impact observed in the sediment. Metaproteomics did not show differences in ARGs expression with SMX exposure in water. Overall, the river bacterial community was resilient to short term exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of SMX which mimics the exposure such communities experience downstream of WWTPs throughout the year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Borsetto
- University of Warwick, School of Life Sciences, Coventry, UK.
| | | | - Emma Travis
- University of Warwick, School of Life Sciences, Coventry, UK
| | - Dae-Wi Kim
- Department of Systems Biotechnology and Center for Antibiotic Resistome, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Republic of Korea
| | - Do-Hoon Lee
- Department of Systems Biotechnology and Center for Antibiotic Resistome, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Republic of Korea
| | - Andrew Bottrill
- University of Warwick, School of Life Sciences, Coventry, UK
| | - Richard Stark
- University of Warwick, School of Life Sciences, Coventry, UK
| | - Lijiang Song
- University of Warwick, Department of Chemistry, Coventry, UK
| | - Chang-Jun Cha
- Department of Systems Biotechnology and Center for Antibiotic Resistome, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Republic of Korea
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