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Swecker WS. Trace Mineral Feeding and Assessment. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 2023; 39:385-397. [PMID: 37419829 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2023.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Trace minerals are commonly supplemented in ruminant feeds as many common feeds are deficient in one or more of the trace minerals. The requirement of trace minerals needed to prevent classic nutrient deficiencies is well established, thus those cases most commonly occur when no supplement is provided. The more common challenge for the practitioner is to determine if additional supplementation is needed to enhance production or decrease disease occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S Swecker
- Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, 205 Duckpond Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0442, USA.
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2
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Winter SN, Fernandez MDP, Taylor KR, Wild MA. Associations between hair trace mineral concentrations and the occurrence of treponeme-associated hoof disease in elk (Cervus canadensis). BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:446. [PMID: 36564777 PMCID: PMC9783704 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03547-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trace minerals are important for animal health. Mineral deficiency or excess can negatively affect immune function, wound healing, and hoof health in domestic livestock, but normal concentrations and health impairment associated with mineral imbalances in wild animals are poorly understood. Treponeme-associated hoof disease (TAHD) is an emerging disease of free-ranging elk (Cervus canadensis) in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Selenium and copper levels identified in a small number of elk from areas where TAHD is established (i.e., southwestern Washington) suggested a mineral deficiency may have increased susceptibility to TAHD. Our objectives were to determine trace mineral concentrations using hair from elk originating in TAHD affected areas of Washington, California, Idaho, and Oregon and assess their associations with the occurrence of the disease. RESULTS We identified limited associations between TAHD occurrence and severity with hair mineral concentrations in 72 free-ranging elk, using Firth's logistic regression and multinomial regression models. We found consistent support for a priori hypotheses that selenium concentration, an important mineral for hoof health, is inversely associated with the occurrence of TAHD. Less consistent support was observed for effects of other minerals previously associated with hoof health (e.g., copper or zinc) or increased disease risk from potential toxicants. CONCLUSION Trace mineral analysis of hair is a non-invasive sampling technique that offers feasibility in storage and collection from live animals and carcasses. For some minerals, levels in hair correlate with visceral organs that are challenging to obtain. Our study using hair collected opportunistically from elk feet submitted for diagnostic investigations provides a modest reference of hair mineral levels in elk from the U.S. Pacific Northwest that may be useful in future determination of reference ranges. Although our results revealed high variability in mineral concentrations between elk, consistent relationship of possibly low selenium levels and TAHD suggest that further investigations are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven N Winter
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
| | | | - Kyle R Taylor
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
| | - Margaret A Wild
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA.
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3
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Sargeant GA, Wild MA, Schroeder GM, Powers JG, Galloway NL. Spatial network clustering reveals elk population structure and local variation in prevalence of chronic wasting disease. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Glen A. Sargeant
- Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center U.S. Geological Survey 8711 37th St. SE Jamestown North Dakota 58401 USA
| | - Margaret A. Wild
- College of Veterinary Medicine Washington State University P.O. Box 647040 Pullman Washington 99164 USA
| | - Gregory M. Schroeder
- Wind Cave National Park National Park Service 26611 U.S. Highway 385 Hot Springs South Dakota 57747 USA
| | - Jenny G. Powers
- Biological Resources Division National Park Service 1201 Oakridge Drive #200 Fort Collins Colorado 80525 USA
| | - Nathan L. Galloway
- Biological Resources Division National Park Service 1201 Oakridge Drive #200 Fort Collins Colorado 80525 USA
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4
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The salt licking activity of the European Moose (Alces alces Linnaeus, 1758) in the Leningrad region of Russia: temporal and behavioral aspects. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF THERIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.15298/rusjtheriol.20.2.05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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5
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Ishida Y, Tian T, Brandt AL, Kelly AC, Shelton P, Roca AL, Novakofski J, Mateus-Pinilla NE. Association of chronic wasting disease susceptibility with prion protein variation in white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus). Prion 2021; 14:214-225. [PMID: 32835598 PMCID: PMC7518741 DOI: 10.1080/19336896.2020.1805288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is caused by prions, infectious proteinaceous particles, PrPCWD. We sequenced the PRNP gene of 2,899 white-tailed deer (WTD) from Illinois and southern Wisconsin, finding 38 haplotypes. Haplotypes A, B, D, E, G and 10 others encoded Q95G96S100N103A123Q226, designated ‘PrP variant A.’ Haplotype C and five other haplotypes encoded PrP ‘variant C’ (Q95S96S100N103A123Q226). Haplotype F and three other haplotypes encoded PrP ‘variant F’ (H95G96S100N103A123Q226). The association of CWD with encoded PrP variants was examined in 2,537 tested WTD from counties with CWD. Relative to PrP variant A, CWD susceptibility was lower in deer with PrP variant C (OR = 0.26, p < 0.001), and even lower in deer with PrP variant F (OR = 0.10, p < 0.0001). Susceptibility to CWD was highest in deer with both chromosomes encoding PrP variant A, lower with one copy encoding PrP variant A (OR = 0.25, p < 0.0001) and lowest in deer without PrP variant A (OR = 0.07, p < 0.0001). There appeared to be incomplete dominance for haplotypes encoding PrP variant C in reducing CWD susceptibility. Deer with both chromosomes encoding PrP variant F (FF) or one encoding PrP variant C and the other F (CF) were all CWD negative. Our results suggest that an increased population frequency of PrP variants C or F and a reduced frequency of PrP variant A may reduce the risk of CWD infection. Understanding the population and geographic distribution of PRNP polymorphisms may be a useful tool in CWD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuko Ishida
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Ting Tian
- Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign, IL, USA.,School of Mathematics, Sun Yat-sen University , Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Adam L Brandt
- Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign, IL, USA.,Division of Natural Sciences, St. Norbert College , De Pere, WI, USA
| | - Amy C Kelly
- Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign, IL, USA.,Bayer U.S. - Crop Sciences Biotechnology Genomics and Data Science, BB4929-A , Chesterfield, MO, USA
| | - Paul Shelton
- Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife Resources , Springfield, IL, USA
| | - Alfred L Roca
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Jan Novakofski
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, IL, USA.,Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Nohra E Mateus-Pinilla
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, IL, USA.,Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign, IL, USA
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6
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Yang A, Boughton RK, Miller RS, Wight B, Anderson WM, Beasley JC, VerCauteren KC, Pepin KM, Wittemyer G. Spatial variation in direct and indirect contact rates at the wildlife-livestock interface for informing disease management. Prev Vet Med 2021; 194:105423. [PMID: 34246115 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about disease transmission relevant contact rates at the wildlife-livestock interface and the factors shaping them. Indirect contact via shared resources is thought to be important but remains unquantified in most systems, making it challenging to evaluate the impact of livestock management practices on contact networks. Free-ranging wild pigs (Sus scrofa) in North America are an invasive, socially-structured species with an expanding distribution that pose a threat to livestock health given their potential to transmit numerous livestock diseases, such as pseudorabies, brucellosis, trichinellosis, and echinococcosis, among many others. Our objective in this study was to quantify the spatial variations in direct and indirect contact rates among wild pigs and cattle on a commercial cow-calf operation in Florida, USA. Using GPS data from 20 wild pigs and 11 cattle and a continuous-time movement model, we extracted three types of spatial contacts between wild pigs and cattle, including direct contact, indirect contact in the pastoral environment (unknown naturally occurring resources), and indirect contact via anthropogenic cattle resources (feed supplements and water supply troughs). We examined the effects of sex, spatial proximity, and cattle supplement availability on contact rates at the species level and characterized wild pig usage of cattle supplements. Our results suggested daily pig-cattle direct contacts occurred only occasionally, while a significant number of pig-cattle indirect contacts occurred via natural resources distributed heterogeneously across the landscape. At cattle supplements, more indirect contacts occurred at liquid molasses than water troughs or molasses-mineral block tubs due to higher visitation rates by wild pigs. Our results can be directly used for parameterizing epidemiological models to inform risk assessment and optimal control strategies for controlling transmission of shared diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anni Yang
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA; National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, 4101 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA.
| | - Raoul K Boughton
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Range Cattle Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 3401 Experiment Station, Ona, FL, 33865, USA
| | - Ryan S Miller
- Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health, United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Service, 2150 Centre Avenue, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, USA
| | - Bethany Wight
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Range Cattle Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 3401 Experiment Station, Ona, FL, 33865, USA
| | - Wesley M Anderson
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Range Cattle Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 3401 Experiment Station, Ona, FL, 33865, USA
| | - James C Beasley
- Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, PO Drawer E, Aiken, SC, 29802, USA
| | - Kurt C VerCauteren
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, 4101 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA
| | - Kim M Pepin
- National Wildlife Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, 4101 Laporte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA
| | - George Wittemyer
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
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7
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Shared use of mineral supplement in extensive farming and its potential for infection transmission at the wildlife-livestock interface. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-021-01493-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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8
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Hedman HD, Varga C, Duquette J, Novakofski J, Mateus-Pinilla NE. Food Safety Considerations Related to the Consumption and Handling of Game Meat in North America. Vet Sci 2020; 7:vetsci7040188. [PMID: 33255599 PMCID: PMC7712377 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci7040188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging foodborne pathogens present a threat to public health. It is now recognized that several foodborne pathogens originate from wildlife as demonstrated by recent global disease outbreaks. Zoonotic spillover events are closely related to the ubiquity of parasitic, bacterial, and viral pathogens present within human and animal populations and their surrounding environment. Foodborne diseases have economic and international trade impacts, incentivizing effective wildlife disease management. In North America, there are no food safety standards for handling and consumption of free-ranging game meat. Game meat consumption continues to rise in North America; however, this growing practice could place recreational hunters and game meat consumers at increased risk of foodborne diseases. Recreational hunters should follow effective game meat food hygiene practices from harvest to storage and consumption. Here, we provide a synthesis review that evaluates the ecological and epidemiological drivers of foodborne disease risk in North American hunter populations that are associated with the harvest and consumption of terrestrial mammal game meat. We anticipate this work could serve as a foundation of preventive measures that mitigate foodborne disease transmission between free-ranging mammalian and human populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayden D. Hedman
- Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA; (H.D.H.); (J.N.)
| | - Csaba Varga
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA;
| | - Jared Duquette
- Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife Resources; Champaign, IL 62702, USA;
| | - Jan Novakofski
- Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA; (H.D.H.); (J.N.)
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Nohra E. Mateus-Pinilla
- Illinois Natural History Survey-Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61801, USA; (H.D.H.); (J.N.)
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA;
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Correspondence:
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9
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Koutsoumanis K, Allende A, Alvarez-Ordoňez A, Bolton D, Bover-Cid S, Chemaly M, Davies R, De Cesare A, Herman L, Hilbert F, Lindqvist R, Nauta M, Peixe L, Ru G, Skandamis P, Suffredini E, Andreoletti O, Benestad SL, Comoy E, Nonno R, da Silva Felicio T, Ortiz-Pelaez A, Simmons MM. Update on chronic wasting disease (CWD) III. EFSA J 2019; 17:e05863. [PMID: 32626163 PMCID: PMC7008890 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The European Commission asked EFSA for a Scientific Opinion: to revise the state of knowledge about the differences between the chronic wasting disease (CWD) strains found in North America (NA) and Europe and within Europe; to review new scientific evidence on the zoonotic potential of CWD and to provide recommendations to address the potential risks and to identify risk factors for the spread of CWD in the European Union. Full characterisation of European isolates is being pursued, whereas most NA CWD isolates have not been characterised in this way. The differing surveillance programmes in these continents result in biases in the types of cases that can be detected. Preliminary data support the contention that the CWD strains identified in Europe and NA are different and suggest the presence of strain diversity in European cervids. Current data do not allow any conclusion on the implications of strain diversity on transmissibility, pathogenesis or prevalence. Available data do not allow any conclusion on the zoonotic potential of NA or European CWD isolates. The risk of CWD to humans through consumption of meat cannot be directly assessed. At individual level, consumers of meat, meat products and offal derived from CWD-infected cervids will be exposed to the CWD agent(s). Measures to reduce human dietary exposure could be applied, but exclusion from the food chain of whole carcasses of infected animals would be required to eliminate exposure. Based on NA experiences, all the risk factors identified for the spread of CWD may be associated with animals accumulating infectivity in both the peripheral tissues and the central nervous system. A subset of risk factors is relevant for infected animals without involvement of peripheral tissues. All the risk factors should be taken into account due to the potential co-localisation of animals presenting with different disease phenotypes.
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10
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Li W, Li C, Jiang Z, Guo R, Ping X. Daily rhythm and seasonal pattern of lick use in sika deer ( Cervus nippon) in China. BIOL RHYTHM RES 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/09291016.2018.1452595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Weiqi Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China
| | - Chunwang Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China
| | - Zhigang Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China
| | - Rui Guo
- Zhejiang Qingliangfeng National Nature Reserve, Lin’an, China
| | - Xiaoge Ping
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, China
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11
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Márquez S, Pagano AS, Mongle CS, Albertine KH, Laitman JT. The Nasal Complex of a Semiaquatic Artiodactyl, the Moose (Alces alces): Is it a Good Evolutionary Model for the Ancestors of Cetaceans? Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 302:667-692. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Márquez
- Departments of Cell Biology and OtolaryngologySUNY Downstate Medical Center Brooklyn New York
| | - Anthony S. Pagano
- Department of Medical SciencesHackensack‐Meridian School of Medicine at Seton Hall University Nutley New Jersey
| | - Carrie S. Mongle
- Interdepartmental Program in Anthropological SciencesStony Brook University Stony Brook New York
| | - Kurt H. Albertine
- Department of PediatricsUniversity of Utah School of Medicine Salt Lake City Utah
| | - Jeffrey T. Laitman
- Departments of Medical Education and Otolaryngology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount SinaiCenter for Anatomy & Functional Morphology New York New York
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12
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Plummer IH, Johnson CJ, Chesney AR, Pedersen JA, Samuel MD. Mineral licks as environmental reservoirs of chronic wasting disease prions. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196745. [PMID: 29719000 PMCID: PMC5931637 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease of deer, elk, moose, and reindeer (cervids) caused by misfolded prion proteins. The disease has been reported across North America and recently discovered in northern Europe. Transmission of CWD in wild cervid populations can occur through environmental routes, but limited ability to detect prions in environmental samples has prevented the identification of potential transmission "hot spots". We establish widespread CWD prion contamination of mineral licks used by free-ranging cervids in an enzootic area in Wisconsin, USA. We show mineral licks can serve as reservoirs of CWD prions and thus facilitate disease transmission. Furthermore, mineral licks attract livestock and other wildlife that also obtain mineral nutrients via soil and water consumption. Exposure to CWD prions at mineral licks provides potential for cross-species transmission to wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. Managing deer use of mineral licks warrants further consideration to help control outbreaks of CWD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian H. Plummer
- Department of Forest & Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Chad J. Johnson
- Departments of Soil Science, Chemistry, and Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Alexandra R. Chesney
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Joel A. Pedersen
- Departments of Soil Science, Chemistry, and Civil & Environmental Engineering, Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MDS); (JAP)
| | - Michael D. Samuel
- Department of Forest & Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MDS); (JAP)
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13
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Time-study of moose (Alces alces L., 1758) geophagia activity in the Central Yakutia. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF THERIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.15298/rusjtheriol.16.2.07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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