Soil lead contamination at child day care centers in the greater Cincinnati area

Pesticide, allergen, PCB, and lead measurements in childcare centers located on tribal lands in the Pacific Northwest, United States

BACKGROUND

Children's potential exposures to chemical and biological agents in tribal childcare centers are not well characterized.

OBJECTIVES

(1) The environmental health of childcare centers in Portland Area Indian Country was characterized by measuring selected pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), allergens, and lead (Pb) in outdoor soil and indoor dust. (2) We compared our results to other studies of childcare centers in both the United States and globally.

METHODS

At 31 tribal childcare centers in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, we collected indoor dust and outdoor soil samples from at least one classroom, multipurpose room, and outdoor play area. Number of rooms sampled depended on facility size. Surface wipes were collected from the floor, play/work surface, and windowsill and analyzed for selected pesticides and PCBs. Vacuum samples were collected from the floor and analyzed for selected allergens. Lead was measured in surface wipes and outdoor soil collected at 11 centers. A questionnaire collected information on demographics, cleaning habits, and pesticide usage.

RESULTS

At least one pesticide was measured at all childcare centers. cis-Permethrin (surface wipes: 0.003-180 ng/cm2), trans-permethrin (surface wipes: 0.002-200 ng/cm2) and piperonyl butoxide (surface wipes: 0.001-120 ng/cm2) were measured in all centers. Lead was measured in most surface wipes (<0.25-14 ng/cm2) and all outdoor soil samples (8.4-50 mg/kg). Aroclors 1242 and 1254 were detected on indoor surfaces in three centers at very low loadings. Allergen residues were measured at very low concentrations in vacuum dust samples (Der p 1: <0.012-0.12 µg/g; Der f 1: <0.012-0.09 µg/g; Mus m 1: <0.002-10.055 µg/g). In general, we observed lower levels of chemical and biological agents than what has been reported previously.

SIGNIFICANCE

By understanding the environmental health of childcare centers, we can better understand the role of child-specific environments in promoting children's health and well-being.

IMPACT STATEMENT

To our knowledge, this is the first study to characterize the environmental health of tribal childcare centers in the Pacific Northwest. Combined with the information we have on childcare centers from around the world, this study expands our knowledge on young children's potential exposures to chemical and biological agents in locations where they spend significant amounts of time.

The relationship between children's non-nutrient exposure to cadmium, lead and zinc and the location of recreational areas - Based on the Upper Silesia region case (Poland)

INTRODUCTION

The aim of the study was to identify the places that could pose a threat to children's health due to the significant concentration of heavy metals in the top layer of soil on which they actively spend their time.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research material consisted of 144 topsoil samples from 10 randomly selected playgrounds and 10 sports fields located in two cities in Poland. The content of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) in the analyzed samples was determined by atomic absorption using the INTEGRA XL ICP spectrometer with inductively coupled plasma.

RESULTS

From the 144 collected soil samples 48 (33%) exceeded the normative value for at least one of the three analyzed heavy metals. The maximum permissible concentration of all three elements was exceeded in the case of 15 samples. The heavy metals concentrations determined in the soil samples taken from the sports fields and playgrounds were in the following ranges, respectively: 0.3-43.0 mg/kg d. w. - Cd; 1.3-1393.8 mg/kg d. w.- Pb; 12.5-4315.8 mg/kg d. w. - Zn. Estimated children's exposure to heavy metals (Cd and Pb) via non-nutrient route indicates a significant risk which can be a place of recreation of the youngest children, as a result of secondary dusting during activity and games.

CONCLUSIONS

In one-third of the analyzed soil samples from playgrounds and sport fields significant contamination with heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Zn) was indicated. In extreme cases, the maximum permissible concentration was exceeded over 20-fold, constituting an important risk factor for children's health.

Heavy metal content and mobility in urban soils of public playgrounds and sport facility areas, Poland

Among the threats to air, soil, and water posed by urbanization, heavy metals appear particularly hazardous. Playgrounds and sport facilities are unique urban places, widely used by children and youth. The aim of this research was to evaluate heavy metal pollution in urban soils, identify relationships among topsoil metal distributions, and assess related health risks in two Polish cities - Warsaw and Bydgoszcz. According to the Regulation of the Polish Minister of the Environment guidelines for total content of Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd and Co our study sites were classified as uncontaminated. Applied Geoaccumulation Index (I_geo; Müller, 1969) largely confirmed this classification, with only two of the investigated Warsaw areas "moderately polluted" with Pb. Generally, only Pb and Zn concentrations exceeded reference background levels for Polish soils. The highest concentrations of Pb and Zn were found in the city centers, the oldest areas where pollution risk is potentially the highest. Metal mobility and solubility were mainly correlated with total content, indicating potential risk from lead and zinc. At some sites in Warsaw, where mean Pb concentration was 87.25 mg kg^-1 and Zn 207.25 mg kg^-1, health risks from ingestion and inhalation seemed significant, particularly for children. In Bydgoszcz use of the studied playgrounds and sport facility areas did not pose a risk to human health. Finally, the study (especially in Warsaw) indicates the need for continued monitoring and suggests lowering permissible limits of these metals in soils, especially in recreational areas, may decrease childrens' exposure risk to these pollutants.

Heavy metals pollution levels and children health risk assessment of Yerevan kindergartens soils

Children, the most vulnerable urban population group, are exceptionally sensitive to polluted environments, particularly urban soils, which can lead to adverse health effects upon exposure. In this study, the total concentrations of Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Ti, V, and Zn were determined in 111 topsoil samples collected from kindergartens in Yerevan. The objectives of this study were to evaluate heavy metal pollution levels of kindergarten's soils in Yerevan, compare with national legal and international requirements on heavy metal contents in kindergarten soil, and assess related child health risk. Multivariate geostatistical analyses suggested that the concentrations of Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Pb, and Zn observed in the kindergarten's topsoil may have originated from anthropogenic sources, while Co, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Ti, and V mostly come from natural sources. According to the Summary pollution index (Zc), 102 kindergartens belong to the low pollution level, 7 to the moderate and only 2 to the high level of pollution. Summary concentration index (SCI) showed that 109 kindergartens were in the allowable level, while 2 featured in the low level of pollution. The health risk assessment showed that in all kindergartens except for seven, non-carcinogenic risk for children was detected (HI>1), while carcinogenic risk from arsenic belongs to the very low (allowable) level. Cr and multi-element carcinogenic risk (RI) exceeded the safety level (1.0E- 06) in all kindergartens and showed that the potential of developing cancer, albeit small, does exist. Therefore, city's kindergartens require necessary remedial actions to eliminate or reduce soil pollution and heavy metal-induced health risks.

Analysis of U.S. soil lead (Pb) studies from 1970 to 2012

Although lead (Pb) emissions to the air have substantially decreased in the United States since the phase-out of leaded gasoline by 1995, amounts of lead in some soils remain elevated. Lead concentrations in residential and recreational soils are of concern because health effects have been associated with Pb exposure. Elevated soil Pb is especially harmful to young children due to their higher likelihood of soil ingestion. The purpose of this study is to create a comprehensive compilation of U.S. soil Pb data published from 1970 through 2012 as well as to analyze the collected data to reveal spatial and/or temporal soil Pb trends in the U.S. over the past 40 years. A total of 84 soil Pb studies across 62 U.S. cities were evaluated. Median soil Pb values from the studies were analyzed with respect to year of sampling, residential location type (e.g., urban, suburban), and population density. In aggregate, there was no statistically significant correlation between year and median soil Pb; however, within single cities, soil Pb generally declined over time. Our analysis shows that soil Pb quantities in city centers were generally highest and declined towards the suburbs and exurbs of the city. In addition, there was a statistically significant, positive relationship between median soil Pb and population density. In general, the trends examined here align with previously reported conclusions that soil Pb levels are higher in larger urban areas and Pb tends to remain in soil for long periods of time.

Soil intervention as a strategy for lead exposure prevention: the New Orleans lead-safe childcare playground project

The feasibility of reducing children's exposure to lead (Pb) polluted soil in New Orleans is tested. Childcare centers (median = 48 children) are often located in former residences. The extent of soil Pb was determined by selecting centers in both the core and outlying areas. The initial 558 mg/kg median soil Pb (range 14-3692 mg/kg) decreased to median 4.1 mg/kg (range 2.2-26.1 mg/kg) after intervention with geotextile covered by 15 cm of river alluvium. Pb loading decreased from a median of 4887 μg/m(2) (454 μg/ft(2)) range 603-56650 μg/m(2) (56-5263 μg/ft(2)) to a median of 398 μg/m(2) (37 μg/ft(2)) range 86-980 μg/m(2) (8-91 μg/ft(2)). Multi-Response Permutation Procedures indicate similar (P-values = 0.160-0.231) soil Pb at childcare centers compared to soil Pb of nearby residential communities. At ∼$100 per child, soil Pb and surface loading were reduced within hours, advancing an upstream intervention conceptualization about Pb exposure prevention.

Estimation of leaded (Pb) gasoline's continuing material and health impacts on 90 US urbanized areas

The subject of this paper is lead (Pb) additives in gasoline and their material and health impact from Pb dust inputs into 90 US urbanized areas (UAs). The mass of Pb additives for 90 UAs as a total of the US Pb additives in 1982 were estimated from vehicle travel, vehicle fuel economy (miles/gallon), ratio of leaded to unleaded fuel, and Pb/gallon. About 500 billion (10⁹) miles of travel in 90 UA's during 1982 account for ~18,000 metric tons (MT), or nearly 30% of the US Pb additives in 1982. Applying the 1982 proportions to the 90 UAs for 1950 through 1982 fuel sales by state accounts for ~1.4 million MT Pb of the US national total of 4.6 million MT during the same years. Fates of Pb additives in engine systems were used to calculate Pb aerosol inputs into the 90 UAs. The inputs range from 100's to more than 100,000 MT of Pb depending on a given UA's traffic flow patterns. Soils are the reservoir of urban Pb dust. The median background soil Pb for the US is 16.5mg/kg (range 10.3 to 30.1mg/kg), and less by an order of magnitude or more than soil Pb within larger UAs. Recognizing the US input of massive gasoline Pb additives into UAs assists with comprehending soil Pb differences between large and small UAs, inner and outer areas of UAs, health disparities, and school achievement issues within UAs. The findings underscore the need for controlling accumulated exterior urban Pb dust from gasoline additives along with paint sources that have accumulated in soil to meet the goal of primary childhood Pb exposure prevention.