Trade-off between larval development rate and Post-metamorphic Traits in the Frog Rana latastei

Rearing density and food variety impact growth, development, and survival of larvae in the declining amphibian, Pseudacris maculata

Boreal chorus frogs (Pseudacris maculata Agassiz 1850) are a widespread amphibian in North America, but several populations are in decline. Specifically, we are developing captive breeding and reintroduction methods for the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence-Canadian Shield population. Here we present the effects of tadpole density, food variety, and addition of supplemental minerals to rearing water on the growth, development, and survival during the larval and metamorph/juvenile stages. We conducted two experiments using a factorial design. We found that low tadpole density (1 vs. 2 tadpoles/L) and high food variety (five food items vs. three food items) significantly increased tadpole body length and Gosner stage after 2 weeks (p < .001), increased survival to metamorphosis (p < .001), decreased time to metamorphosis (p < .001), and increased weight after metamorphosis (p < .001). On average, tadpoles in the high density/low food treatment, compared to the low density/high food, were 25% smaller after 2 weeks, had 3.9× lower survival to metamorphosis, took 1.25× longer to reach metamorphosis, and weighed 1.5× less after metamorphosis. In contrast, neither density (0.5 vs. 1 tadpole/L) nor mineral supplemented water affected growth and development, but tadpole survival was higher at 1 tadpole/L. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of rearing boreal chorus frogs in captivity and provide guidelines for rearing this and similar species in a laboratory environment.

Early development of the glucocorticoid stress response in poison frog tadpoles

In vertebrates, the glucocorticoid response through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis controls many essential functions, including behavior, metabolism, and ontogenetic transitions. However, there are tradeoffs associated with high levels of glucocorticoids, including reduced growth rate and lowered immunity. These tradeoffs drive variation in the timing of the development of the HPA axis across taxa. In anurans (frogs and toads), corticosterone has critical roles in development and behavior, and concentrations can fluctuate in response to environmental stressors. Given the role of corticosterone in ontogenetic changes and behaviors, we hypothesized that species with immediate habitat transitions and challenges would develop an HPA axis early in development. To test this hypothesis, we studied tadpoles of the dyeing poison frog ( Dendrobates tinctorius ), a species in which tadpoles hatch terrestrially and are transported to pools of water by their parent. We measured the excretion rate and whole-body concentration of corticosterone and the corticosterone response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). We found no significant differences in excretion rates and whole-body concentration of corticosterone, nor physiological response to ACTH injection across tadpole development. These findings indicate that the glucocorticoid response is developed early in ontogeny. These findings generally differ from those found in other species of tadpoles, which may suggest the unique ecological pressures of D. tinctorius has shaped the development of its HPA axis. More broadly, this study illustrates how life history strategies and tradeoffs of glucocorticoids impact the timing of the development of the HPA axis.

Highlights

The timing of HPA axis development differs across species. We studied the HPA axis across tadpole development in Dendrobates tinctorius . No difference in corticosterone concentration across development.No difference in corticosterone response to ACTH across development.Results suggest an early developed HPA axis is essential for their life history.

Carryover effects minimized the positive effects of treated wastewater on anuran development

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are a potential solution for wastewater treatment due to their capacity to support native species and provide tertiary wastewater treatment. However, CWs can expose wildlife communities to excess nutrients and harmful contaminants, affecting their development, morphology, and behavior. To examine how wastewater CWs may affect wildlife, we raised Southern leopard frogs, Lithobates sphenocephalus, in wastewater from conventional secondary lagoon and tertiary CW treatments for comparison with pondwater along with the presence and absence of a common plant invader to these systems - common duckweed (Lemna minor) - and monitored their juvenile development for potential carryover effects into the terrestrial environment. The tertiary CW treatment did not change demographic or morphological outcomes relative to conventional wastewater treatment in our study. Individuals emerging from both wastewater treatments demonstrated lower terrestrial survival rates than those emerging from pondwater throughout the experiment though experiment-wide survival rates were equivalent among treatments. Individuals from wastewater treatments transformed at larger sizes relative to those in pondwater, but this advantage was minimized in the terrestrial environment. Individuals that developed with duckweed had consistent but marginally better performance in both environments. Our results suggest a potential trade-off between short-term benefits of development in treated effluent and long-term consequences on overall fitness. Overall, we demonstrate that CWs for the purpose of wastewater treatment may not be suitable replicates for wildlife habitat and could have consequences for local population dynamics.

Rapid adaptation to invasive predators overwhelms natural gradients of intraspecific variation

Invasive predators can exert strong selection on native populations. If selection is strong enough, populations could lose the phenotypic variation caused by adaptation to heterogeneous environments. We compare frog tadpoles prior to and 14 years following invasion by crayfish. Prior to the invasion, populations differed in their intrinsic developmental rate, with tadpoles from cold areas reaching metamorphosis sooner than those from warm areas. Following the invasion, tadpoles from invaded populations develop faster than those from non-invaded populations. This ontogenetic shift overwhelmed the intraspecific variation between populations in a few generations, to the point where invaded populations develop at a similar rate regardless of climate. Rapid development can have costs, as fast-developing froglets have a smaller body size and poorer jumping performance, but compensatory growth counteracts some costs of development acceleration. Strong selection by invasive species can disrupt local adaptations by dampening intraspecific phenotypic variation, with complex consequences on lifetime fitness.

Extreme Arsenic and Antimony Uptake and Tolerance in Toad Tadpoles during Development in Highly Contaminated Wetlands

The effects of extreme concentrations of toxic metalloids, such as arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb), on larval amphibians are not well-understood. We sampled Western Toad tadpoles (Anaxyrus boreas) living in As- and Sb-contaminated wetlands throughout their development. Although the tadpoles completed metamorphosis, they accumulated among the highest concentrations of As and Sb ever reported for a living vertebrate (3866.9 mg/kg; 315.0 mg/kg (dry weight), respectively). Ingestion of contaminated sediment had a more important role in metalloid accumulation than aqueous exposure alone. Metalloids were initially concentrated in the gut; however, by metamorphosis, the majority were found in other tissues. These concentrations subsequently decreased with the onset of metamorphosis, yet remained quite elevated. Sublethal effects, including delayed development and reduced size at metamorphosis, were associated with elevated metalloid exposure. The presence of organic arsenicals in tadpole tissues suggests they have the ability to biomethylate inorganic As compounds. The arsenical trimethyl arsine oxide accounted for the majority of extractable organic As, with lesser amounts of monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsinic acid. Our findings demonstrate remarkable tolerance of toad tadpoles to extreme metalloid exposure and implicate physiological processes mediating that tolerance.

Spindly leg syndrome in Atelopus varius is linked to environmental calcium and phosphate availability

Spindly leg syndrome (SLS) is a relatively common musculoskeletal abnormality associated with captive-rearing of amphibians with aquatic larvae. We conducted an experiment to investigate the role of environmental calcium and phosphate in causing SLS in tadpoles. Our 600-tadpole experiment used a fully-factorial design, rearing Atelopus varius tadpoles in water with either high (80mg/l CaCO3), medium (50mg/l CaCO3), or low calcium hardness (20mg/l CaCO3), each was combined with high (1.74 mg/l PO4) or low (0.36 mg/l PO4) phosphate levels. We found that calcium supplementation significantly improved tadpole survival from 19% to 49% and that low calcium treatments had 60% SLS that was reduced to about 15% at the medium and high calcium treatments. Phosphate supplementation significantly reduced SLS prevalence in low calcium treatments. This experimental research clearly links SLS to the calcium: phosphate homeostatic system, but we were unable to completely eliminate the issue, suggesting an interactive role of other unidentified factors.

How to recover from a bad start: size at metamorphosis affects growth and survival in a tropical amphibian

Background

In species with complex life cycles, size at metamorphosis is a key life-history trait which reflects the complex interactions between costs and benefits of life in the aquatic and terrestrial environments. Whereas the effects of a deteriorating larval habitat (e.g. pond desiccation) on triggering an early metamorphosis have been extensively investigated in amphibians, the consequences of the resulting reduced size at metamorphosis on fitness in the post-metamorphic terrestrial stage remain poorly understood. We tested the hypothesis that a smaller size at metamorphosis negatively affects performance and survival in the ensuing terrestrial stage. Using as model a tropical amphibian (Ceratophrys stolzmanni) showing a large phenotypic plasticity in metamorphosing traits, we evaluated the effects of size at metamorphosis on fitness-related trophic and locomotor performance traits, as well as on growth and survival rates.

Results

Our results support the hypothesis that a larger size at metamorphosis is correlated with better survival and performance. The survival rate of large metamorphosing individuals was 95%, compared to 60% for those completing metamorphosis at a small size. Locomotor performance and gape size were positively correlated with body size, larger animals being more mobile and capable to ingest larger prey. However, smaller individuals achieved higher growth rates, thus reducing the size gap.

Conclusions

Overall, size at metamorphosis affected profoundly the chances of survival in the short term, but smaller surviving individuals partly compensated their initial disadvantages by increasing growth rates.

Consequences of rapid development owing to cohort splitting: just how costly is it to hurry?

In cohort splitting, diverging sub-cohorts may show substantial differences in their growth and developmental rates. Although in the past, causes and adaptive value of cohort splitting were studied in detail, individual-level consequences of cohort splitting are still rather overlooked. Life history theory predicts that considerably increased growth and developmental rates should be traded off against other costly life history traits. However, it is not clear whether one should expect such associations in adaptive developmental plasticity scenarios, because natural selection might have promoted genotypes that mitigate those potential costs of rapid development. To address these contrasting propositions, we assessed life history traits in the wolf spider Pardosa agrestis, both collected from natural habitat and reared in laboratory. We found that some traits are negatively associated with developmental rates in spiders collected from the wild, but these associations were relaxed to a considerable extent in laboratory-reared specimens. In general, we observed no consistent trend for the presence of developmental costs, although some results might suggest higher relative fecundity costs in rapidly developing females. Our study provides a detailed approach to the understanding of individual-level consequences of cohort splitting, and to the associations between key life history traits in adaptive developmental plasticity scenarios.

Post-metamorphic carry-over effects of altered thyroid hormone level and developmental temperature: physiological plasticity and body condition at two life stages in Rana temporaria

Environmental stress induced by natural and anthropogenic processes including climate change may threaten the productivity of species and persistence of populations. Ectotherms can potentially cope with stressful conditions such as extremes in temperature by exhibiting physiological plasticity. Amphibian larvae experiencing stressful environments display altered thyroid hormone (TH) status with potential implications for physiological traits and acclimation capacity. We investigated how developmental temperature (T_dev) and altered TH levels (simulating proximate effects of environmental stress) influence the standard metabolic rate (SMR), body condition (BC), and thermal tolerance in metamorphic and post-metamorphic anuran larvae of the common frog (Rana temporaria) reared at five constant temperatures (14-28 °C). At metamorphosis, larvae that developed at higher temperatures had higher maximum thermal limits but narrower ranges in thermal tolerance. Mean CT_max was 37.63 °C ± 0.14 (low TH), 36.49 °C ± 0.31 (control), and 36.43 °C ± 0.68 (high TH) in larvae acclimated to different temperatures. Larvae were able to acclimate to higher T_dev by adjusting their thermal tolerance, but not their SMR, and this effect was not impaired by altered TH levels. BC was reduced by 80% (metamorphic) and by 85% (post-metamorphic) at highest T_dev. The effect of stressful larval conditions (i.e., different developmental temperatures and, to some extent, altered TH levels) on SMR and particularly on BC at the onset of metamorphosis was carried over to froglets at the end of metamorphic climax. This has far reaching consequences, since body condition at metamorphosis is known to determine metamorphic success and, thus, is indirectly linked to individual fitness in later life stages.

Intra-specific Niche Partitioning in Antarctic Fur Seals, Arctocephalus gazella

Competition for resources within a population can lead to niche partitioning between sexes, throughout ontogeny and among individuals, allowing con-specifics to co-exist. We aimed to quantify such partitioning in Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella, breeding at South Georgia, which hosts ~95% of the world’s population. Whiskers were collected from 20 adult males and 20 adult females and stable isotope ratios were quantified every 5 mm along the length of each whisker. Nitrogen isotope ratios (δ¹⁵N) were used as proxies for trophic position and carbon isotope ratios (δ¹³C) indicated foraging habitat. Sexual segregation was evident: δ¹³C values were significantly lower in males than females, indicating males spent more time foraging south of the Polar Front in maritime Antarctica. In males δ¹³C values declined with age, suggesting males spent more time foraging south throughout ontogeny. In females δ¹³C values revealed two main foraging strategies: 70% of females spent most time foraging south of the Polar Front and had similar δ¹⁵N values to males, while 30% of females spent most time foraging north of the Polar Front and had significantly higher δ¹⁵N values. This niche partitioning may relax competition and ultimately elevate population carrying capacity with implications for ecology, evolution and conservation.

Growth, developmental, and size structure responses in tadpole prey under increasing threat from gape-limited newts

Size variability within a cohort can have profound effects on community ecology and evolution. Although competition for resources generally increases size variability, the effect of (non-consumptive) predation on this demographic trait remains relatively poorly understood. Existing models suggest a positive correlation between growth rate (mediated by resource level) and expression of size variability (as measured by the coefficient of variation) in prey cohorts. We tested this prediction by exposing the tadpoles of the Japanese Forest Green Treefrog (Rhacophorus arboreus (Okada and Kawano, 1924) = Zhangixalus arboreus (Okada and Kawano, 1924)) to the non-lethal presence of gape-limited Japanese Fire-bellied Newts (Cynops pyrrhogaster (Boie, 1826)) at low and high predator densities in an outdoor mesocosm experiment. Tadpole growth rates and periphyton biomass increased with newt density. But in contrast to prediction, elevated growth rates did not increase but, reversely, decreased cohort size variability in the tadpoles. We discuss two potential mechanisms behind this outcome. First, increased resource availability mediated by predator feeding may have reduced the strength of competition, ultimately leading to more evenly distributed resource gains among individuals; second, if smaller individuals grew relatively faster than larger individuals, as to quicken entry to a size refuge against the gape-limited predator, then inter-individual size differences could diminish over time.

Insecticide-induced changes in amphibian brains: How sublethal concentrations of chlorpyrifos directly affect neurodevelopment

Widespread use of pesticides often contaminates natural habitats, exposing nontarget organisms to pesticides that were designed to control pest populations. Even low levels of pesticides can affect aquatic communities both directly and indirectly. Previous work has shown that trace amounts of the pesticide chlorpyrifos altered tadpole morphology and neurodevelopment in artificial ponds (mesocosms). To determine whether effects resulted from direct chlorpyrifos exposure or from disruption of the food web due to a pesticide-induced decline in zooplankton, we examined the impacts of chlorpyrifos on amphibian development in the presence of chlorpyrifos-resistant zooplankton, a key component of the aquatic trophic community. Northern leopard frog (Lithobates pipiens) tadpoles were reared through metamorphosis in mesocosms containing either 0 or 1 µg/L chlorpyrifos and either chlorpyrifos-resistant or chlorpyrifos-sensitive Daphnia pulex zooplankton. Developmental exposure to chlorpyrifos resulted in metamorphs with a relatively wider optic tectum, medulla, and diencephalon compared with controls, and this result was found regardless of the zooplankton population within the mesocosm. Thus, chlorpyrifos directly impacted brain development, independent of the effects on the trophic community. With respect to body shape, chlorpyrifos had no effect on body shape of metamorphs reared in mesocosms with chlorpyrifos-sensitive zooplankton, but body shape was sensitive to zooplankton population in the absence of chlorpyrifos. To conclude, low, ecologically relevant doses of organophosphorous pesticides can directly impact neurodevelopment in a vertebrate model. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:2692-2698. © 2018 SETAC.

Length-mass allometries in amphibians

Body mass is rarely recorded in amphibians, and other body measurements (e.g. snout to vent length, SVL) are generally collected instead. However, length measurements, when used as proxies of body mass in comparative analyses, are problematic if different taxa and morphotypes are included. We developed allometric relationships to derive body mass from SVL measurements. We fitted phylogenetic generalized least square models for frogs (Anura) and salamanders (Caudata) and for several families separately. We tested whether allometric relationships differed between species with different habitat preferences and between morphs in salamanders. Models were fitted with SVL-mass measurements for 88 frog and 42 salamander species. We assessed the predictive performance of the models by cross-validation. Overall, the models showed high explained variance and low forecasting errors. Models differed among semi-aquatic, terrestrial and arboreal frogs, and between paedomorphic and non-paedomorphic salamanders. Body mass estimates derived from our models allow for comparability of studies on multiple taxa and can be used for testing theories built upon evolutionary and ecological processes which are directly related to body mass.

Performance Tradeoffs, Ontogenetic Conflict, and Multisport Athletes: How is an Ironman Triathlete Like a Frog?

SYNOPSIS

Life-history theory is a cornerstone of modern evolutionary biology that addresses myriad phenomena ranging from demography and population structure to the evolution of aging and senescence. Trade-offs may arise in a number of contexts, from allocation-based (e.g., egg size vs. egg number) to genomic conflicts (e.g., intralocus sexual conflict in which genes that perform well in males perform poorly in females). Here we test for performance tradeoffs in human athletes. We show that in Ironman triathletes, swimming performance trades off with cycling and running performance. The tradeoff appears to be plastic, in that only highly trained athletes experience the tradeoff. We then investigate whether wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) experience similar locomotor performance tradeoffs, to ask whether the divergent environments experienced by tadpoles and frogs leads to ontogenetic conflict (tradeoffs over development). We show that although swimming and jumping performance are positively correlated, antagonistic natural selection may still favor alternative adaptive optima in the two life history stages. However, "adaptive decoupling" of the life stages during metamorphosis may resolve ontogenetic conflict and facilitate independent adaptation to both environments. Thus, whereas performance tradeoffs are general in both systems, the unique selective environment of amphibians has favored the evolution of mechanisms to alleviate the costs of those tradeoffs.

Keystone nonconsumptive effects within a diverse predator community

The number of prey killed by diverse predator communities is determined by complementarity and interference among predators, and by traits of particular predator species. However, it is less clear how predators' nonconsumptive effects (NCEs) scale with increasing predator biodiversity. We examined NCEs exerted on Culex mosquitoes by a diverse community of aquatic predators. In the field, mosquito larvae co-occurred with differing densities and species compositions of mesopredator insects; top predator dragonfly naiads were present in roughly half of surveyed water bodies. We reproduced these predator community features in artificial ponds, exposing mosquito larvae to predator cues and measuring resulting effects on mosquito traits throughout development. Nonconsumptive effects of various combinations of mesopredator species reduced the survival of mosquito larvae to pupation, and reduced the size and longevity of adult mosquitoes that later emerged from the water. Intriguingly, adding single dragonfly naiads to ponds restored survivorship of larval mosquitoes to levels seen in the absence of predators, and further decreased adult mosquito longevity compared with mosquitoes emerging from mesopredator treatments. Behavioral observations revealed that mosquito larvae regularly deployed "diving" escape behavior in the presence of the mesopredators, but not when a dragonfly naiad was also present. This suggests that dragonflies may have relaxed NCEs of the mesopredators by causing mosquitoes to abandon energetically costly diving. Our study demonstrates that adding one individual of a functionally unique species can substantially alter community-wide NCEs of predators on prey. For pathogen vectors like mosquitoes, this could in turn influence disease dynamics.

Niche partitioning and the role of intraspecific niche variation in structuring a guild of generalist anurans

Intra-population niche differences in generalist foragers have captured the interest of ecologists, because such individuality can have important ecological and evolutionary implications. Few researchers have investigated how these differences affect the relationships among ecologically similar, sympatric species. Using stable isotopes, stomach contents, morphology and habitat preference, we examined niche partitioning within a group of five anurans and determined whether variation within species could facilitate resource partitioning. Species partitioned their niches by trophic level and by foraging habitat. However, there was considerable intraspecific variation in trophic level, with larger individuals generally feeding at higher trophic levels. For species at intermediate trophic levels, smaller individuals overlapped in trophic level with individuals of smaller species and larger individuals overlapped with the smallest individuals from larger species. Species varied in carbon isotopes; species with enriched carbon isotope ratios foraged farther from ponds, whereas species with depleted carbon isotope values foraged closer to ponds. Our study shows that these species partition their niches by feeding at different trophic levels and foraging at different distances from ponds. The intraspecific variation in trophic level decreased the number of individuals from each species that overlapped in trophic level with individuals from other species, which can facilitate species coexistence.

Interactions between a small chronic increase in diel water temperature and exposure to a common environmental contaminant on development of Arizona tiger salamander larvae

Global climate change leading to increased temperatures may affect shifts in physiological processes especially in ectothermic organisms. Temperature-dependent shifts in developmental rate in particular, may lead to life-long changes in adult morphology and physiology. Combined with anthropogenic changes in the chemical environment, changes in developmental outcomes may affect adult functionality. The purpose of this study is to determine 1) if small increases in diel water temperature affect the development of Arizona tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum) larvae, and 2) if this change interacts with exposure to the common environmental thyroid disrupting compound, perchlorate. Larvae between Watson and Russell developmental stages 8-13 were exposed to ammonium perchlorate (AP) at doses of 0, 20 or 200ppb and then raised at either ambient or a 0.9°C elevated above ambient temperature for 81days in outdoor enclosures. During the first 5 treatment weeks, AP treatment induced slower development and smaller snout-vent length (SVL) of exposed larvae, but only in the elevated temperature group. During the later stages of development, the small increase in temperature, regardless of AP treatment, tended to decrease the time to metamorphosis and resulted in a significantly smaller body mass and worse body condition. Our results suggest that even small diel water temperature increases can affect the developmental process of salamanders and this shift in the water temperature may interact with a common environmental contaminant.

Consequences of life history switch point plasticity for juvenile morphology and locomotion in the Túngara frog

Many animals with complex life cycles can cope with environmental uncertainty by altering the timing of life history switch points through plasticity. Pond hydroperiod has important consequences for the fitness of aquatic organisms and many taxa alter the timing of life history switch points in response to habitat desiccation. For example, larval amphibians can metamorphose early to escape drying ponds. Such plasticity may induce variation in size and morphology of juveniles which can result in carry-over effects on jumping performance. To investigate the carry-over effects of metamorphic plasticity to pond drying, we studied the Túngara frog, Physalaemus pustulosus, a tropical anuran that breeds in highly ephemeral habitats. We conducted an outdoor field mesocosm experiment in which we manipulated water depth and desiccation and measured time and size at metamorphosis, tibiofibula length and jumping performance. We also conducted a complimentary laboratory experiment in which we manipulated resources, water depth and desiccation. In the field experiment, metamorphs from dry-down treatments emerged earlier, but at a similar size to metamorphs from constant depth treatments. In the laboratory experiment, metamorphs from the low depth and dry-down treatments emerged earlier and smaller. In both experiments, frogs from dry-down treatments had relatively shorter legs, which negatively impacted their absolute jumping performance. In contrast, reductions in resources delayed and reduced size at metamorphosis, but had no negative effect on jumping performance. To place these results in a broader context, we review past studies on carry-over effects of the larval environment on jumping performance. Reductions in mass and limb length generally resulted in lower jumping performance across juvenile anurans tested to date. Understanding the consequences of plasticity on size, morphology and performance can elucidate the linkages between life stages.

Dissecting the smell of fear from conspecific and heterospecific prey: investigating the processes that induce anti-predator defenses

Prey use chemical cues from predation events to obtain information about predation risk to alter their phenotypes. Though we know how many prey respond to predators, we still have a poor understanding of the processes and chemical cues involved during a predation event. We examined how gray treefrog tadpoles (Hyla versicolor) altered their behavior and morphology when raised with cues from different stages of predator attack, predators fed different amounts of prey, and predators consuming different combinations of treefrog tadpoles or snails (Helisoma trivolvis). We found that starved predators and predators fed snails induced no defensive responses whereas tadpoles exposed to a predator consuming gray treefrogs induced greater hiding, lower activity, and relatively deeper tails. We also found that the tadpoles did not respond to crushed, chewed, or digested conspecifics, but they did respond to consumed (i.e., chewed plus digested) conspecifics. When we increased the treefrog biomass consumed by predators, tadpoles frequently increased their defenses when only tadpoles were consumed and always increased their defenses when the total diet biomass was held constant via the inclusion of snails. When predators experienced temporal variation in diet composition, including cues from snails to cause additional digestive cues or chemical noise, there was no effect on tadpole phenotypes. Our results suggest that amphibian prey rely on cues from both chewing and digestion of conspecifics and that the presence of cues from digested heterospecifics play little or no role in adding chemical noise or increased digestive enzymes and by-products that could potentially interfere with induced defenses.

Phenotypic divergence of the common toad (Bufo bufo) along an altitudinal gradient: evidence for local adaptation

Variation in the environment can induce different patterns of genetic and phenotypic differentiation among populations. Both neutral processes and selection can influence phenotypic differentiation. Altitudinal phenotypic variation is of particular interest in disentangling the interplay between neutral processes and selection in the dynamics of local adaptation processes but remains little explored. We conducted a common garden experiment to study the phenotypic divergence in larval life-history traits among nine populations of the common toad (Bufo bufo) along an altitudinal gradient in France. We further used correlation among population pairwise estimates of quantitative trait (QST) and neutral genetic divergence (FST from neutral microsatellite markers), as well as altitudinal difference, to estimate the relative role of divergent selection and neutral genetic processes in phenotypic divergence. We provided evidence for a neutral genetic differentiation resulting from both isolation by distance and difference in altitude. We found evidence for phenotypic divergence along the altitudinal gradient (faster development, lower growth rate and smaller metamorphic size). The correlation between pairwise QSTs-FSTs and altitude differences suggested that this phenotypic differentiation was most likely driven by altitude-mediated selection rather than by neutral genetic processes. Moreover, we found different divergence patterns for larval traits, suggesting that different selective agents may act on these traits and/or selection on one trait may constrain the evolution on another through genetic correlation. Our study highlighted the need to design more integrative studies on the common toad to unravel the underlying processes of phenotypic divergence and its selective agents in the context of environmental clines.

Larger body size at metamorphosis enhances survival, growth and performance of young cane toads (Rhinella marina)

Body size at metamorphosis is a key trait in species (such as many anurans) with biphasic life-histories. Experimental studies have shown that metamorph size is highly plastic, depending upon larval density and environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, food supply, water quality, chemical cues from conspecifics, predators and competitors). To test the hypothesis that this developmental plasticity is adaptive, or to determine if inducing plasticity can be used to control an invasive species, we need to know whether or not a metamorphosing anuran's body size influences its subsequent viability. For logistical reasons, there are few data on this topic under field conditions. We studied cane toads (Rhinella marina) within their invasive Australian range. Metamorph body size is highly plastic in this species, and our laboratory studies showed that larger metamorphs had better locomotor performance (both on land and in the water), and were more adept at catching and consuming prey. In mark-recapture trials in outdoor enclosures, larger body size enhanced metamorph survival and growth rate under some seasonal conditions. Larger metamorphs maintained their size advantage over smaller siblings for at least a month. Our data support the critical but rarely-tested assumption that all else being equal, larger body size at metamorphosis is likely to enhance an individual's long term viability. Thus, manipulations to reduce body size at metamorphosis in cane toads may help to reduce the ecological impact of this invasive species.

Clutch identity and predator-induced hatching affect behavior and development in a leaf-breeding treefrog

For species with complex life cycles, transitions between life stages result in niche shifts that are often associated with evolutionary trade-offs. When conditions across life stages are unpredictable, plasticity in niche shift timing may be adaptive; however, factors associated with clutch identity (e.g., genetic or maternal) may influence the effects of such plasticity. The red-eyed treefrog (Agalychnis callidryas) is an ideal organism for investigating the effects of genetics and life stage switch point timing because embryos exhibit adaptive phenotypic plasticity in hatching time. In this study, we evaluated the effects of experimentally manipulated hatching time and clutch identity on antipredator behavior of tadpoles and on developmental traits of metamorphs, including larval period, mass, SVL, and jumping ability. We found that in the presence of dragonfly nymph predator cues at 21 days post-oviposition, tadpoles reduced both their activity level and height in the water column. Furthermore, early-hatched tadpoles were less active than late-hatched tadpoles of the same age. This difference in behavior patterns of early- and late-hatched tadpoles may represent an adaptive response due to a longer period of susceptibility to odonate predators for early-hatched tadpoles, or it may be a carry-over effect mediated by early exposure to an environmental stressor (i.e., induction of early hatching). We also found that hatching time affected both behavioral traits and developmental traits, but its effect on developmental traits varied significantly among clutches. This study shows that a single early-life event may influence a suite of factors during subsequent life stages and that some of these effects appear to be dependent on clutch identity. This interaction may represent an evolutionary response to a complex life cycle and unpredictable environments, regardless of whether the clutch differences are due to additive genetic variance or maternal effects.

Alteration of mitochondrial efficiency affects oxidative balance, development and growth in frog (Rana temporaria) tadpoles

Mitochondria are known to play a central role in life history processes, being the main source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which promote oxidative constraint. Surprisingly, although the main role of the mitochondria is to produce ATP, the plasticity of mitochondrial ATP generation has received little attention in life history studies. Yet, mitochondrial energy transduction represents the physiological link between environmental resources and energy allocated to animal performance. Studying both facets of mitochondrial functioning (ATP and ROS production) would allow better understanding of the proximate mechanisms underlying life history. We have experimentally modulated the mitochondrial capacity to generate ROS and ATP during larval development of Rana temporaria tadpoles, via chronic exposure (34 days) to a mitochondrial uncoupler (2,4-dinitrophenol, dNP). The aim was to better understand the impact of mitochondrial uncoupling on both responses in terms of oxidative balance, energy input (oxygen and feeding consumption) and energy output (growth and development of the tadpole). Exposure to 2,4-dNP reduced mitochondrial ROS generation, total antioxidant defences and oxidative damage in treated tadpoles compared with controls. Despite the beneficial effect of dNP on oxidative status, development and growth rates of treated tadpoles were lower than those in the control group. Treatment of tadpoles with 2,4-dNP promoted a mild mitochondrial uncoupling and enhanced metabolic rate. These tadpoles did not increase their food consumption, and thus failed to compensate for the energy loss elicited by the decrease in the efficiency of ATP production. These data suggest that the cost of ATP production, rather than the oxidative balance, is the parameter that constrains growth/development of tadpoles, highlighting the central role of energy transduction in larval performance.

Compensatory development and costs of plasticity: larval responses to desiccated conspecifics

Understanding constraints on phenotypic plasticity is central to explaining its evolution and the evolution of phenotypes in general, yet there is an ongoing debate on the classification and relationships among types of constraints. Since plasticity is often a developmental process, studies that consider the ontogeny of traits and their developmental mechanisms are beneficial. We manipulated the timing and reliability of cues perceived by fire salamander larvae for the future desiccation of their ephemeral pools to determine whether flexibility in developmental rates is constrained to early ontogeny. We hypothesized that higher rates of development, and particularly compensation for contradictory cues, would incur greater endogenous costs. We found that larvae respond early in ontogeny to dried conspecifics as a cue for future desiccation, but can fully compensate for this response in case more reliable but contradictory cues are later perceived. Patterns of mortality suggested that endogenous costs may depend on instantaneous rates of development, and revealed asymmetrical costs of compensatory development between false positive and false negative early information. Based on the results, we suggest a simple model of costs of development that implies a tradeoff between production costs of plasticity and phenotype-environment mismatch costs, which may potentially underlie the phenomenon of ontogenetic windows constraining plasticity.

Trait performance correlations across life stages under environmental stress conditions in the common frog, Rana temporaria

If an organism's juvenile and adult life stages inhabit different environments, certain traits may need to be independently adapted to each environment. In many organisms, a move to a different environment during ontogeny is accompanied by metamorphosis. In such organisms phenotypic induction early in ontogeny can affect later phenotypes. In laboratory experiments we first investigated correlations between body morphology and the locomotor performance traits expressed in different life stages of the common frog, Rana temporaria: swimming speed and acceleration in tadpoles; and jump-distance in froglets. We then tested for correlations between these performances across life stages. We also subjected tadpoles to unchanging or decreasing water levels to explore whether decreasing water levels might induce any carry-over effects. Body morphology and performance were correlated in tadpoles; morphology and performance were correlated in froglets: hence body shape and morphology affect performance within each life stage. However, performance was decoupled across life stages, as there was no correlation between performance in tadpoles and performance in froglets. While size did not influence tadpole performance, it was correlated with performance of the metamorphosed froglets. Experiencing decreasing water levels accelerated development time, which resulted in smaller tadpoles and froglets, i.e., a carry-over effect. Interestingly, decreasing water levels positively affected the performance of tadpoles, but negatively affected froglet performance. Our results suggest that performance does not necessarily have to be correlated between life stages. However, froglet performance is size dependent and carried over from the tadpole stage, suggesting that some important size-dependent characters cannot be decoupled via metamorphosis.