SPR and ITC determination of the kinetics and the thermodynamics of bivalent versus monovalent sugar ligand–lectin interactions

Tailoring Metallosupramolecular Glycoassemblies for Enhancing Lectin Recognition

Multivalency is a fundamental principle in nature that leads to high-affinity intermolecular recognition through multiple cooperative interactions that overcome the weak binding of individual constituents. For example, multivalency plays a critical role in lectin-carbohydrate interactions that participate in many essential biological processes. Designing high-affinity multivalent glycoconjugates that engage lectins results in systems with the potential to disrupt these biological processes, offering promising applications in therapeutic design and bioengineering. Here, a versatile and tunable synthetic platform for the synthesis of metallosupramolecular glycoassemblies is presented that leverages subcomponent self-assembly, which employs metal ion templates to generate complex supramolecular architectures from simple precursors in one pot. Through ligand design, this approach provides precise control over molecular parameters such as size, shape, flexibility, valency, and charge, which afforded a diverse family of well-defined hybrid glyconanoassemblies. Evaluation of these complexes as multivalent binders to Concanavalin A (Con A) by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) demonstrates the optimal saccharide tether length and the effect of electrostatics on protein affinity, revealing insights into the impact of synthetic design on molecular recognition. The presented studies offer an enhanced understanding of structure-function relationships governing lectin-saccharide interactions at the molecular level and guide a systematic approach towards optimizing glyconanoassembly binding parameters.

Advances in the Structures, Pharmacological Activities, and Biosynthesis of Plant Diterpenoids

More and more diterpenoids have attracted extensive attention due to the diverse chemical structures and excellent biological activities, and have been developed into clinical drugs or consumer products. The vast majority of diterpenoids are derived from plants. With the long-term development of plant medicinal materials, the natural resources of many plant diterpenoids are decreasing, and the biosynthetic mechanism of key active components has increasingly become a research hotspot. Using synthetic biology to engineer microorganisms into "cell factories" to produce the desired compounds is an essential means to solve these problems. In this review, we depict the plant-derived diterpenoids from chemical structure, biological activities, and biosynthetic pathways. We use representative plant diterpenes as examples to expound the research progress on their biosynthesis, and summarize the heterologous production of plant diterpenoids in microorganisms in recent years, hoping to lay the foundation for the development and application of plant diterpenoids in the future.

Con A lectin binding by synthetic bivalent arabinomannan tri- and pentasaccharides reveals connectivity-dependent functional valencies

Lectin Con A, with specificity to interact with α-d-mannopyranoside, achieves tight binding affinity with the aid of optimal multivalent ligand valencies, distances and orientations between the ligands. A series of synthetic arabinomannans, possessing arabinan core and mannan at the non-reducing ends, is studied to assess the above constraints involved with lectin binding in this report. Trisaccharides, with (1 → 2)(1 → 3), (1 → 2)(1 → 5) and (1 → 3)(1 → 5) glycosidic bond connectivities, and a pentasaccharide with mannopyranosides at the non-reducing ends are synthesized. The binding affinities of the mannose bivalent ligands are studied with tetrameric Con A lectin by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). Among the derivatives, trisaccharide with (1 → 2)(1 → 3) glycosidic bond connectivity and the pentasaccharide undergo lectin interaction, clearly fulfilling the bivalent structural and functional valencies. Remaining oligosaccharides exhibit only a functional monovalency, defying the bivalent structural valency. The trisaccharide fulfilling the structural and functional valencies represent the smallest bivalent ligand, undergoing the lectin interaction in a trans-mode.

Exploring multivalent carbohydrate-protein interactions by NMR

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) has been widely employed to assess diverse features of glycan-protein molecular recognition events. Different types of qualitative and quantitative information at different degrees of resolution and complexity can be extracted from the proper application of the available NMR-techniques. In fact, affinity, structural, kinetic, conformational, and dynamic characteristics of the binding process are available. Nevertheless, except in particular cases, the affinity of lectin-sugar interactions is weak, mostly at the low mM range. This feature is overcome in biological processes by using multivalency, thus augmenting the strength of the binding. However, the application of NMR methods to monitor multivalent lectin-glycan interactions is intrinsically challenging. It is well known that when large macromolecular complexes are formed, the NMR signals disappear from the NMR spectrum, due to the existence of fast transverse relaxation, related to the large size and exchange features. Indeed, at the heart of the molecular recognition event, the associated free-bound chemical exchange process for both partners takes place in a particular timescale. Thus, these factors have to be considered and overcome. In this review article, we have distinguished, in a subjective manner, the existence of multivalent presentations in the glycan or in the lectin. From the glycan perspective, we have also considered whether multiple epitopes of a given ligand are presented in the same linear chain of a saccharide (i.e., poly-LacNAc oligosaccharides) or decorating different arms of a multiantennae scaffold, either natural (as in multiantennae N-glycans) or synthetic (of dendrimer or polymer nature). From the lectin perspective, the presence of an individual binding site at every monomer of a multimeric lectin may also have key consequences for the binding event at different levels of complexity.

Grating-coupled interferometry reveals binding kinetics and affinities of Ni ions to genetically engineered protein layers

Reliable measurement of the binding kinetics of low molecular weight analytes to their targets is still a challenging task. Often, the introduction of labels is simply impossible in such measurements, and the application of label-free methods is the only reliable choice. By measuring the binding kinetics of Ni(II) ions to genetically modified flagellin layers, we demonstrate that: (1) Grating-Coupled Interferometry (GCI) is well suited to resolve the binding of ions, even at very low protein immobilization levels; (2) it supplies high quality kinetic data from which the number and strength of available binding sites can be determined, and (3) the rate constants of the binding events can also be obtained with high accuracy. Experiments were performed using a flagellin variant incorporating the C-terminal domain of the nickel-responsive transcription factor NikR. GCI results were compared to affinity data from titration calorimetry. We found that besides the low-affinity binding sites characterized by a micromolar dissociation constant (Kd), tetrameric FliC-NikRC molecules possess high-affinity binding sites with Kd values in the nanomolar range. GCI enabled us to obtain real-time kinetic data for the specific binding of an analyte with molar mass as low as 59 Da, even at signals lower than 1 pg/mm2.

Novel NMR Avenues to Explore the Conformation and Interactions of Glycans

This perspective article is focused on the presentation of the latest advances in NMR methods and applications that are behind the exciting achievements in the understanding of glycan receptors in molecular recognition events. Different NMR-based methodologies are discussed along with their applications to scrutinize the conformation and dynamics of glycans as well as their interactions with protein receptors.

Exploring Structure⁻Property Relationships of GAGs to Tailor ECM-Mimicking Hydrogels

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are a class of linear polysaccharides that are ubiquitous in the extracellular matrix (ECM) and on cell surfaces. Due to their key role in development, homeostasis, pathogenesis, and regeneration, GAGs are increasingly used in the design of ECM-mimicking hydrogels to stimulate tissue formation and regenerative processes via specifically orchestrated cell-instructive signals. These applications first and foremost build on the ability of GAGs to effectively bind, protect, and release morphogens. The specificity and strength of morphogen-GAG interactions are largely governed by the number and spatial distribution of negatively charged sulfate groups carried by GAGs. Herein, we summarize a mean-field approach to quantify the density of ionizable groups, GAG concentration, and cross-linking degree of GAG-containing hydrogels on the basis of microslit electrokinetic experiments. We further present and discuss a continuum model of mucosa that accounts for charge regulation by glycan-ion pairing in biological contexts and under conditions of macromolecular crowding. Finally, we discuss the modulation of the morphogen binding and transport in GAG hydrogels by selective desulfation of the GAG component.

Rapidly probing the interaction between sulfamethazine antibiotics and fulvic acids

Antibiotics residuals in the environments receive wide concerns due to the high risk of generating antibiotic resistance. Natural organic matters (NOM) existed in the environments are considered to have the capacity of binding with organic contaminants, consequently influencing their speciation and transformation in the natural environments. To assess the migration of antibiotics in the environments, it is crucial to understand the binding mechanisms between NOM and antibiotics, which is still unclear due to the limit of available research methods. In this study, the interaction between fulvic acids (FA), one of the main components of NOM, and sulfamethazine (SMZ) was characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) combined with surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) technology. The parameters related to kinetics and thermodynamics of the interaction were determined, and the possible mechanisms driving the interaction were also proposed. In addition, density functional theory (DFT) was used to predict the binding mode between FA and SMZ to reveal the interaction mechanism. Results indicate that FA can effectively bound with SMZ to form a stable complex with a binding constant at the level of 10³ L/mol. The kinetic parameters including association and dissociation constants were 29.4 L/mol/s and 6.64 × 10^-3 1/s, respectively. Hydrophobic interaction might play significant roles in the binding interaction with ancillary contribution of π-π conjunction arising from the aromatic rings stacking of FA and SMZ.

Lectin-carbohydrate complex evaluation by chemiluminescence

In order to characterize the affinity between specific carbohydrate-binding proteins such as lectins, a model is proposed to study these interactions using a polysaccharide membrane to simulate such adsorption. Here, lectin-carbohydrate interactions were chemiluminescently investigated using lectins conjugated to acridinium ester (AE) and polysaccharides composed of their respective specific carbohydrates. The lectin-AE conjugates were incubated with discs (0.0314-0.6358 cm²) of phytagel, chitosan and carrageenan. The complex formation chemiluminescently detected followed the Langmuir isotherm from which constants were estimated. The association constant (K_a) and maximum binding sites on the membranes were 2.4 × 10^-7 M^-1 ± 0.8 × 10^-7 M^-1 and 1.3 × 10^-3 mol. mg^-1 ± 0.3 × 10^-3 mol. mg^-1 (Con A); 0.9 × 10^-6 M^-1 ± 0.4 × 10^-6 M^-1 and 0.021 × 10^-3 mol. mg^-1 ± 0.003 × 10^-3 mol. mg^-1 (WGA) and 2.0 × 10^-6 M^-1 ± 0.9 × 10^-6 M^-1 and 0.069 × 10^-3 mol. mg^-1 ± 0.010 × 10^-3 mol. mg^-1 (PNA). The proposed model might be useful to study binding affinity and estimate the amount of binding not limited by the sugar content in the membrane.

Comparative thermodynamic analysis in solution of a next generation antibody mimetic to VEGF

An antibody mimetic known as Fab–PEG–Fab (FpF) is a stable bivalent molecule that may have some potential therapeutic advantages over IgG antibodies due to differences in their binding kinetics as determined by surface plasmon resonance. Here we describe the thermodynamic binding properties to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) of the FpF antibody mimetics derived from bevacizumab and ranibizumab. Bevacizumab is an IgG antibody and ranibizumab is an antibody fragment (Fab). Both are used clinically to target VEGF to inhibit angiogenesis. FpF_beva displayed comparable binding affinity (KD) and binding thermodynamics (ΔH = −25.7 kcal mole⁻¹ and ΔS = 14 kcal mole⁻¹) to bevacizumab (ΔH = −25 kcal mole⁻¹, ΔS = 13.3 kcal mole⁻¹). FpF_rani interactions with VEGF were characterised by large favourable enthalpy (ΔH = −42 kcal mole⁻¹) and unfavourable entropy (ΔS = 31 kcal mole⁻¹) changes compared to ranibizumab (ΔH = −18.5 kcal mole⁻¹ and ΔS = 6.7 kcal mole⁻¹), which being a Fab, is mono-valent. A large negative entropy change resulting in binding of bivalent FpF to homodimer VEGF might be due to the conformational change of the flexible regions of the FpF upon ligand binding. Mono-valent Fab (i.e. ranibizumab or the Fab derived from bevacizumab) displayed a larger degree of freedom (smaller unfavourable entropy) upon binding to homodimer VEGF. Our report describes the first comprehensive enthalpy and entropy compensation analysis for FpF antibody mimetics. While the FpFs displayed similar thermodynamics and binding affinity to the full IgG (i.e. bevacizumab), their enhanced protein stability, slower dissociation rate and lack of Fc effector functions could make FpF a potential next-generation therapy for local tissue-targeted indications.

ITC illustrated similar binding thermodynamics for anti-VEGF IgG and FpFs. Bivalent FpF_rani displayed larger enthalpy and entropy than monovalent ranibizumab.

Binding properties of the natural red dye carthamin with human serum albumin: Surface plasmon resonance, isothermal titration microcalorimetry, and molecular docking analysis

The interaction between carthamin and human serum albumin (HSA) was investigated by multiple spectroscopic analyses, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC), and molecular docking studies. Fluorescence lifetime measurements implied that carthamin quenched the intrinsic fluorescence of HSA with the formation of a new complex via static mode. Binding affinities regarding this interaction were obtained from SPR analysis. Results demonstrated that carthamin could form a 1:1 complex with HSA at the binding affinity of K_D=8.726×10^-5M and that a high temperature was unfavourable for the interaction. ITC analyses and molecular docking results illustrated that HSA shaped a proper cavity (site I) to embed the whole carthamin molecule and that the complex was formed depending on intermolecular forces, including hydrophobic interaction, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic force. Moreover, circular dichroism and 3D fluorescence demonstrated that carthamin slightly disturbed the microenvironment of amino residues and affected the secondary structure of HSA.

Kinetics and thermodynamics of interaction between sulfonamide antibiotics and humic acids: Surface plasmon resonance and isothermal titration microcalorimetry analysis

The presence of sulfonamide antibiotics in the environments has been recognized as a crucial issue. Their migration and transformation in the environment is determined by natural organic matters that widely exist in natural water and soil. In this study, the kinetics and thermodynamics of interactions between humic acids (HA) and sulfamethazine (SMZ) were investigated by employing surface plasmon resonance (SPR) combined with isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC) technologies. Results show that SMZ could be effectively bound with HA. The binding strength could be enhanced by increasing ionic strength and decreasing temperature. High pH was not favorable for the interaction. Hydrogen bond and electrostatic interaction may play important roles in driving the binding process, with auxiliary contribution from hydrophobic interaction. The results implied that HA existed in the environment may have a significant influence on the migration and transformation of organic pollutants through the binding process.

Synthesis of tetravalent LacNAc-glycoclusters as high-affinity cross-linker against Erythrina cristagalli agglutinin

Four kinds of tetravalent double-headed glycoclusters [(LacNAc)4-DHGs] were designed with linkers of varying lengths consisting of alkanedioic carboxyamido groups (C6, C12, C18 and C24) between two bi-antennary LacNAc-glycosides. These glycoclusters served as high-affinity cross-linking ligands for the LacNAc-binding lectin Erythrina cristagalli agglutinin (ECA). The binding activity and cross-linking between each ligand and ECA were characterized by a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), a quantitative precipitation assay and dynamic light scattering (DLS). For the precipitation assay and DLS measurement, the synthesized (LacNAc)4-DHGs were found to be capable of binding and precipitating the ECA as multivalent ligands. ITC analysis indicated the binding of (LacNAc)4-DHGs was driven by a favorable enthalpy change. Furthermore, the entropy penalty from binding (LacNAc)4-DHGs clearly decreased in a spacer length-dependent manner. The binding affinities of flexible (LacNAc)4-DHGs (C18 and C24) with long spacers were found to be more favorable than those of the clusters having short spacers (C6 and C12). These results were supported by molecular dynamics simulations with explicit water molecules for the tetravalent glycoclusters with ECA. We concluded that the subtle modification in the epitope-presenting scaffolds exerts the significant effect in the recognition efficiency involved in the LacNAc moieties by ECA.

Glycosylation of polyphosphazenes by thiol-yne click chemistry for lectin recognition

Strong carbohydrate–lectin binding interactions in biological systems can be mimicked through the synthesis of glucose containing macromolecules, particularly glycosylated polymers.

Electrogenerated poly(pyrrole-lactosyl) and poly(pyrrole-3'-sialyllactosyl) interfaces: toward the impedimetric detection of lectins

This paper reports on the impedimetric transduction of binding reaction between polymerized saccharides and target lectins. The controlled potential electro-oxidation of pyrrole-lactosyl and pyrrole-3'-sialyllactosyl at 0.95 V vs. Ag/AgCl, provides thin and reproducible poly(pyrrole-saccharide) films. The affinity binding of two lectins: Arachis hypogaea, (PNA) and Maackia amurensis (MAA) onto poly(pyrrole-lactosyl) and poly(pyrrole-3'-sialyllactosyl) electrodes, was demonstrated by cyclic voltammetry in presence of ruthenium hexamine and hydroquinone. In addition, rotating disk experiments were carried out to determine the permeability of both polypyrrole films and its evolution after incubating with lectin target. Finally, the possibility of using the poly(pyrrole-lactosyl) or poly(pyrrole-3'-siallyllactosyl) films for the impedimetric transduction of the lectin binding reaction, was investigated with hydroquinone (2 × 10(-3) mol L(-1)) as a redox probe in phosphate buffer. The resulting impedance spectra were interpreted and modeled as an equivalent circuit indicating that charge transfer resistance (R ct) and relaxation frequency (f°) parameters are sensitive to the lectin binding. R ct increases from 77 to 97 Ω cm(2) for PNA binding and from 93 to 131 Ω cm(2) for MAA binding. In parallel, f° decreases from 276 to 222 Hz for PNA binding and from 223 to 131 Hz for MAA binding. This evolution of both parameters reflects the steric hindrances generated by the immobilized lectins towards the permeation of the redox probe.

Bacterial isolation by lectin-modified microengines

New template-based self-propelled gold/nickel/polyaniline/platinum (Au/Ni/PANI/Pt) microtubular engines, functionalized with the Concanavalin A (ConA) lectin bioreceptor, are shown to be extremely useful for the rapid, real-time isolation of Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria from fuel-enhanced environmental, food, and clinical samples. These multifunctional microtube engines combine the selective capture of E. coli with the uptake of polymeric drug-carrier particles to provide an attractive motion-based theranostics strategy. Triggered release of the captured bacteria is demonstrated by movement through a low-pH glycine-based dissociation solution. The smaller size of the new polymer-metal microengines offers convenient, direct, and label-free optical visualization of the captured bacteria and discrimination against nontarget cells.

Design and synthesis of high-avidity tetravalent glycoclusters as probes for Sambucus sieboldiana agglutinin and characterization of their binding properties

We designed and synthesized three tetravalent sialo-glycoclusters that had different separations between the terminal sialic acids and the linking carboxy groups of the ethylene glycol bis(β-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetate scaffold to serve as ligands for the sialic acid-binding lectin Sambucus sieboldiana agglutinin (SSA). The interaction between each glycocluster and SSA was characterized by hemagglutination inhibition, quantitative precipitation, and double-diffusion assays. For the precipitation assays, the precipitin curves indicated that the ligands and SSA bound in either a 1:1 or a 1:2 ratio, i.e., stoichiometrically. The strong interactions of these sialo-glycoclusters with SSA could be ascribed to a combination of multivalency and spacer effects. We also assessed the nature of the ligand-SSA complexes by isothermal titration calorimetry and dynamic light scattering. The results of those experiments indicated that formation of intermolecular complexes occurred at less than stoichiometric ratios of ligand to SSA concentrations and that, as the concentrations of the ligands increased, larger cross-linked aggregates formed. Large aggregates that were present concurrently with visible precipitation and with a particle size centered at ~600 to 800 nm were identified by dynamic light scattering.

Ligand accessibility to receptor binding sites enhanced by movable polyrotaxanes

Functionalized polyrotaxanes are utilized to investigate the relation to multivalent interactions between the mannose moiety and Con A immobilized surfaces. According to the results of SPR spectroscopy, the mannose-conjugated polyrotaxanes show a higher response than any other mannose conjugate on both surfaces of high- and low-density Con A. Moreover, the results of the FRET analysis suggest that the mobility of α-cyclodextrins in the polyrotaxane more efficiently contributes to their binding interactions in a multivalent manner. This well-defined polyrotaxane system provides control over ligand density, ligand mobility, and gives an efficient response to the biological interaction receptor, which has not been easy to achieve in covalently bound polymeric systems.

Detection of gastric carcinoma-associated antigen MG7-Ag in human sera using surface plasmon resonance sensor

BACKGROUND

MG7-Ag is a kind of gastric cancer-specific tumor-associated antigen and has been investigated to serve as a marker of gastric cancer for early diagnosis.

METHODS

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor was used for the detection of MG7-Ag in the sera of gastric cancer patients to develop an innovative, simple and rapid assay method for early diagnosis. The specific monoclonal MG7 antibodies were used as capture and detection receptors which were immobilized on the surface of SPR sensor chips for MG7-Ag identification in the human sera. The measurements include 9 cases of gastric cancer patients and 2 cases of healthy blood donors and a MKN45 cancer cell lysate solution sample for positive control.

RESULTS

The binding of MG7-Ag onto the sensor surface was observed from SPR spectra. The sera of most gastric cancer patients revealed much higher expression level of MG7-Ag than healthy human sera did in SPR measurement.

CONCLUSION

The initial results demonstrate that the SPR biosensor has the potential for its application in the early diagnosis of gastric cancer. However, more tests need to be done to confirm the detection limitation and the criterion for cancer risk evaluation in early diagnosis.

Grading the commercial optical biosensor literature-Class of 2008: 'The Mighty Binders'

Optical biosensor technology continues to be the method of choice for label-free, real-time interaction analysis. But when it comes to improving the quality of the biosensor literature, education should be fundamental. Of the 1413 articles published in 2008, less than 30% would pass the requirements for high-school chemistry. To teach by example, we spotlight 10 papers that illustrate how to implement the technology properly. Then we grade every paper published in 2008 on a scale from A to F and outline what features make a biosensor article fabulous, middling or abysmal. To help improve the quality of published data, we focus on a few experimental, analysis and presentation mistakes that are alarmingly common. With the literature as a guide, we want to ensure that no user is left behind.

Analysis of cooperativity by isothermal titration calorimetry

Cooperative binding pervades Nature. This review discusses the use of isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) in the identification and characterisation of cooperativity in biological interactions. ITC has broad scope in the analysis of cooperativity as it determines binding stiochiometries, affinities and thermodynamic parameters, including enthalpy and entropy in a single experiment. Examples from the literature are used to demonstrate the applicability of ITC in the characterisation of cooperative systems.

XPS and SPR analysis of glycoarray surface density

Despite the fact that the carbohydrate microarray has seen increasing use within the field of glycobiology, the surface chemistry of the glycoarray remains largely unexplored. Motivated by the need to develop surface analytical techniques to characterize carbohydrate-modified surfaces, we developed a quantitative X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPR imaging) method to study glycan biosensors. We performed a comparative analysis on the relative coverage of mixed self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold, consisting of a thiol-functionalized trimannoside (Manalpha1,2Manalpha1,2Manalpha-OEG-SH) at varying concentrations (0-100%) mixed separately with two thiol-containing polyethylene glycol oligomers. XPS C1s core level analysis was used to identify the O-C-O functionality unique to the carbohydrate acetal moiety and to separate and quantify the relative coverage of sugar in carbohydrate/OEG mixed SAMs. XPS spectra of the mixed SAMs demonstrated a proportional increase in the acetal signature of the glycan with increasing sugar concentration. To relate surface glycan density with biological function, we carried out a kinetic analysis of Concanavalin A (ConA) binding to SAMs of varying densities of carbohydrate using SPR imaging. We observed protein binding that was highly dependent on both glycan density and the nature of the OEG-thiol used in the mixed self-assembly. These results illustrate the utility of surface analytical techniques such as XPS and SPR in carbohydrate biosensor characterization and optimization.

Synthesis and mycobacterial growth inhibition activities of bivalent and monovalent arabinofuranoside containing alkyl glycosides

Arabinofuranosides constitute one of the important components of cell wall structures of mycobacteria. With this importance of arabinofuranosides in mind, alkyl glycosides bearing arabinofuranoside trisaccharides were prepared, wherein the sugars were presented either in the monovalent or bivalent forms. Following the synthesis, the monovalent and bivalent alkyl glycosides were tested for their activities in a mycobacterial growth assay. The growth of the mycobacterial strain M. smegmatis was assessed in the presence of the alkyl glycosides and it was realized that the alkyl glycosides acted as inhibitors of the mycobacterial growth. The inhibition of the growth, caused by the above alkyl glycosides, was not observed for the arabinofuranose trisaccharide alone, without the alkyl groups, and for an alkyl glycoside bearing maltose as the sugar component.