Molecular investigations of BKCa channels and the modulatory β-subunits in porcine basilar and middle cerebral arteries

Ca2+-Activated K+ Channels and the Regulation of the Uteroplacental Circulation

Adequate uteroplacental blood supply is essential for the development and growth of the placenta and fetus during pregnancy. Aberrant uteroplacental perfusion is associated with pregnancy complications such as preeclampsia, fetal growth restriction (FGR), and gestational diabetes. The regulation of uteroplacental blood flow is thus vital to the well-being of the mother and fetus. Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ (K_Ca) channels of small, intermediate, and large conductance participate in setting and regulating the resting membrane potential of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and endothelial cells (ECs) and play a critical role in controlling vascular tone and blood pressure. K_Ca channels are important mediators of estrogen/pregnancy-induced adaptive changes in the uteroplacental circulation. Activation of the channels hyperpolarizes uteroplacental VSMCs/ECs, leading to attenuated vascular tone, blunted vasopressor responses, and increased uteroplacental blood flow. However, the regulation of uteroplacental vascular function by K_Ca channels is compromised in pregnancy complications. This review intends to provide a comprehensive overview of roles of K_Ca channels in the regulation of the uteroplacental circulation under physiological and pathophysiological conditions.

Activation of the Large-Conductance, Voltage, and Ca2+- Activated K+ (BK) Channel in Acute Spinal Cord Injury in the Wistar Rat Is Neuroprotective

Context/Objectives: Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in significant neuronal and glial cell death resulting in impaired neurological and motor function. Uncontrolled Ca²⁺ entry results in excitotoxicity and cell death. In this study, we examine the use of a BK channel activator, Isopimaric acid (ISO), as a neuroprotective agent post-SCI as this channel is involved in regulating Ca²⁺ entry.

Design:By using a 25-g clip compression at the T6 level, we generated a SCI event in wistar rats. At 1 h post-injury we administered ISO (BK channel activator), the BK channel inhibitor iberiotoxin (IbTx), or a vehicle control for 4 weeks via mini osmotic pump (pump capacity). For 8 weeks post-injury, gait analysis of motor function was performed. At the end of 8 weeks, the extent of myelination in the spinal cord was assessed in addition to the electrophysiological profile.

Results:Our immunohistological data suggests that ISO treatment leads to an increase or preservation of myelinated axonal tracts. This was further supported by our electrophysiological studies which demonstrate higher compound action potential amplitudes and speed of transmission in ISO-treated animals compared to inj-non-treated. Finally, treatment with ISO significantly improved motor function in our test model.

Conclusion: In conclusion, activation of the BK channel during acute SCI may be a novel therapeutic target for acute SCI.

Epigenetic upregulation of large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel expression in uterine vascular adaptation to pregnancy

Our previous study demonstrated that pregnancy increased large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium channel β1 subunit (BKβ1) expression and large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium channel activity in uterine arteries, which were abrogated by chronic hypoxia. The present study tested the hypothesis that promoter methylation/demethylation is a key mechanism in epigenetic reprogramming of BKβ1 expression patterns in uterine arteries. Ovine BKβ1 promoter of 2315 bp spanning from -2211 to +104 of the transcription start site was cloned, and an Sp1-380 binding site that contains CpG dinucleotide in its core binding sequences was identified. Site-directed deletion of the Sp1 site significantly decreased the BKβ1 promoter activity. Estrogen receptor-α bound to the Sp1 site through tethering to Sp1 and upregulated the expression of BKβ1. The Sp1 binding site at BKβ1 promoter was highly methylated in uterine arteries of nonpregnant sheep, and methylation inhibited transcription factor binding and BKβ1 promoter activity. Pregnancy caused a significant decrease in CpG methylation at the Sp1 binding site and increased Sp1 binding to the BKβ1 promoter and BKβ1 mRNA abundance. Chronic hypoxia during gestation abrogated this pregnancy-induced demethylation and upregulation of BKβ1 expression. The results provide evidence of a novel mechanism of promoter demethylation in pregnancy-induced reprogramming of large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium channel expression and function in uterine arteries and suggest new insights of epigenetic mechanisms linking gestational hypoxia to aberrant uteroplacental circulation and increased risk of preeclampsia.

Large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated potassium channel in mitochondria of endothelial EA.hy926 cells

In the present study, we describe the existence of a large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated potassium (BKCa) channel in the mitochondria of the human endothelial cell line EA.hy926. A single-channel current was recorded from endothelial mitoplasts (i.e., inner mitochondrial membrane) using the patch-clamp technique in the mitoplast-attached mode. A potassium-selective current was recorded with a mean conductance equal to 270 ± 10 pS in a symmetrical 150/150 mM KCl isotonic solution. The channel activity, which was determined as the open probability, increased with the addition of calcium ions and the potassium channel opener NS1619. Conversely, the activity of the channel was irreversibly blocked by paxilline and iberiotoxin, BKCa channel inhibitors. The open-state probability was found to be voltage dependent. The substances known to modulate BKCa channel activity influenced the bioenergetics of mitochondria isolated from human endothelial EA.hy926 cells. In isolated mitochondria, 100 μM Ca²⁺, 10 μM NS1619, and 0.5 μM NS11021 depolarized the mitochondrial membrane potential and stimulated nonphosphorylating respiration. These effects were blocked by iberiotoxin and paxilline in a potassium-dependent manner. Under phosphorylating conditions, NS1619-induced, iberiotoxin-sensitive uncoupling diverted energy from ATP synthesis during the phosphorylating respiration of the endothelial mitochondria. Immunological analysis with antibodies raised against proteins of the plasma membrane BKCa channel identified a pore-forming α-subunit and an auxiliary β₂-subunit of the channel in the endothelial mitochondrial inner membrane. In conclusion, we show for the first time that the inner mitochondrial membrane in human endothelial EA.hy926 cells contains a large-conductance calcium-dependent potassium channel with properties similar to those of the surface membrane BKCa channel.

Function and regulation of large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel in vascular smooth muscle cells

Large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK(Ca)) channels are abundantly expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells. Activation of BK(Ca) channels leads to hyperpolarization of cell membrane, which in turn counteracts vasoconstriction. Therefore, BK(Ca) channels have an important role in regulation of vascular tone and blood pressure. The activity of BK(Ca) channels is subject to modulation by various factors. Furthermore, the function of BK(Ca) channels are altered in both physiological and pathophysiological conditions, such as pregnancy, hypertension and diabetes, which has dramatic impacts on vascular tone and hemodynamics. Consequently, compounds and genetic manipulation that alter activity and expression of the channel might be of therapeutic interest.

Mechanosensitivity of STREX-lacking BKCa channels in the colonic smooth muscle of the mouse

Stretch sensitivity of Ca²(+)-activated large-conductance K(+) channels (BK(Ca)) has been observed in a variety of cell types and considered to be a potential mechanism in mechanoelectric transduction (MET). Mechanical stress is a major stimulator for the smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. However, much about the role and mechanism of MET in GI smooth muscles remains unknown. The BK(Ca) shows a functional diversity due to intensive Slo I alternative splicing and different α/β-subunit assembly in various cells. The stress-regulated exon (STREX) insert is suggested to be an indispensable domain for the mechanosensitivity of BK(Ca). The purpose of this study was to determine whether the BK(Ca) in colonic myocytes of the adult mouse is sensitive to mechanical stimulation and whether the STREX insert is a crucial segment for the BK(Ca) mechanosensitivity. The α- and β1-subunit mRNAs and the α-subunit protein of the BK(Ca) channels were detected in the colonic muscularis. We found that the BK(Ca) STREX-lacking variant was abundantly expressed in the smooth muscle, whereas the STREX variant was not detectable. We demonstrated that the STREX-lacking BK(Ca) channels were also sensitive to membrane stretch. We suggest that in addition to the STREX domain, there are other additional structures in the channel responsible for mechanically coupling with the cell membrane.

Localization of large conductance calcium-activated potassium channels and their effect on calcitonin gene-related peptide release in the rat trigemino-neuronal pathway

Large conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK(Ca)) channels are membrane proteins contributing to electrical propagation through neurons. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a neuropeptide found in the trigeminovascular system (TGVS). Both BK(Ca) channels and CGRP are involved in migraine pathophysiology. Here we study the expression and localization of BK(Ca) channels and CGRP in the rat trigeminal ganglion (TG) and the trigeminal nucleus caudalis (TNC) as these structures are involved in migraine pain. Also the effect of the BK(Ca) channel blocker iberiotoxin and the BK(Ca) channel opener NS11021 on CGRP release from isolated TG and TNC was investigated. By RT-PCR, BK(Ca) channel mRNA was detected in the TG and the TNC. A significant difference in BK(Ca) channel mRNA transcript levels were found using qPCR between the TNC as compared to the TG. The BK(Ca) channel protein was more expressed in the TNC as compared to the TG shown by western blotting. Immunohistochemistry identified BK(Ca) channels in the nerve cell bodies of the TG and the TNC. The beta2- and beta4-subunit proteins were found in the TG and the TNC. They were both more expressed in the TNC as compared to TG shown by western blotting. In isolated TNC, the BK(Ca) channel blocker iberiotoxin induced a concentration-dependent release of CGRP that was attenuated by the BK(Ca) channel opener NS11021. No effect on basal CGRP release was found by NS11021 in isolated TG or TNC or by iberiotoxin in TG. In conclusion, we found both BK(Ca) channel mRNA and protein expression in the TG and the TNC. The BK(Ca) channel protein and the modulatory beta2- and beta4-subunt proteins were more expressed in the TNC than in the TG. Iberiotoxin induced an increase in CGRP release from the TNC that was attenuated by NS11021. Thus, BK(Ca) channels might have a role in trigeminovascular pain transmission.

A large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel in potato (Solanum tuberosum) tuber mitochondria

In the present study, we describe the existence of a novel potassium channel in the plant [potato (Solanum tuberosum) tuber] mitochondrial inner membrane. We found that substances known to modulate large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel activity influenced the bioenergetics of potato tuber mitochondria. In isolated mitochondria, Ca2+ and NS1619 {1,3-dihydro-1-[2-hydroxy-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-(trifluoromethyl)-2H-ben-zimidazole-2-one; a potassium channel opener} were found to depolarize the mitochondrial membrane potential and to stimulate resting respiration. These effects were blocked by iberiotoxin (a potassium channel inhibitor) in a potassium-dependent manner. Additionally, the electrophysiological properties of the large-conductance potassium channel present in the potato tuber inner mitochondrial membrane are described in a reconstituted system, using planar lipid bilayers. After incorporation in 50/450 mM KCl gradient solutions, we recorded large-conductance potassium channel activity with conductance from 502±15 to 615±12 pS. The probability of channel opening was increased by Ca2+ and reduced by iberiotoxin. Immunological analysis with antibodies raised against the mammalian plasma-membrane large-conductance Ca2+-dependent K+ channel identified a pore-forming α subunit and an auxiliary β2 subunit of the channel in potato tuber mitochondrial inner membrane. These results suggest that a large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel similar to that of mammalian mitochondria is present in potato tuber mitochondria.