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Blazevich AJ, Fletcher JR. More than energy cost: multiple benefits of the long Achilles tendon in human walking and running. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:2210-2225. [PMID: 37525526 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Elastic strain energy that is stored and released from long, distal tendons such as the Achilles during locomotion allows for muscle power amplification as well as for reduction of the locomotor energy cost: as distal tendons perform mechanical work during recoil, plantar flexor muscle fibres can work over smaller length ranges, at slower shortening speeds, and at lower activation levels. Scant evidence exists that long distal tendons evolved in humans (or were retained from our more distant Hominoidea ancestors) primarily to allow high muscle-tendon power outputs, and indeed we remain relatively powerless compared to many other species. Instead, the majority of evidence suggests that such tendons evolved to reduce total locomotor energy cost. However, numerous additional, often unrecognised, advantages of long tendons may speculatively be of greater evolutionary advantage, including the reduced limb inertia afforded by shorter and lighter muscles (reducing proximal muscle force requirement), reduced energy dissipation during the foot-ground collisions, capacity to store and reuse the muscle work done to dampen the vibrations triggered by foot-ground collisions, reduced muscle heat production (and thus core temperature), and attenuation of work-induced muscle damage. Cumulatively, these effects should reduce both neuromotor fatigue and sense of locomotor effort, allowing humans to choose to move at faster speeds for longer. As these benefits are greater at faster locomotor speeds, they are consistent with the hypothesis that running gaits used by our ancestors may have exerted substantial evolutionary pressure on Achilles tendon length. The long Achilles tendon may therefore be a singular adaptation that provided numerous physiological, biomechanical, and psychological benefits and thus influenced behaviour across multiple tasks, both including and additional to locomotion. While energy cost may be a variable of interest in locomotor studies, future research should consider the broader range of factors influencing our movement capacity, including our decision to move over given distances at specific speeds, in order to understand more fully the effects of Achilles tendon function as well as changes in this function in response to physical activity, inactivity, disuse and disease, on movement performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Blazevich
- Centre for Human Performance, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jared R Fletcher
- Department of Health and Physical Education, Mount Royal University, 4825 Mount Royal Gate SW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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2
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Sedlmayr JC, Bates KT, Wisco JJ, Schachner ER. Revision of hip flexor anatomy and function in modern humans, and implications for the evolution of hominin bipedalism. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:1147-1167. [PMID: 34569157 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Hip flexor musculature was instrumental in the evolution of hominin bipedal gait and in endurance running for hunting in the genus Homo. The iliacus and psoas major muscles were historically considered to have separate tendons with different insertions on the lesser trochanter. However, in the early 20th century, it became "common knowledge" that the two muscles insert together on the lesser trochanter as the "iliopsoas" tendon. We revisited the findings of early anatomists and tested the more recent paradigm of a common "iliopsoas" tendon based on dissections of hips and their associated musculature (n = 17). We rediscovered that the tendon of the psoas muscle inserts only into a crest running from the superior to anterior aspect of the lesser trochanter, separate from the iliacus. The iliacus inserts fleshly into the anterior portion of the lesser trochanter and into an inferior crest extending from it. We developed 3D multibody dynamics biomechanical models for: (a) the conjoint "iliopsoas" tendon hypothesis and (b) the separate insertion hypothesis. We show that the conjoint model underestimates the iliacus' capacity to generate hip flexion relative to the separate insertion model. Further work reevaluating the primate lower limb (including human) through dissection, needs to be performed to develop those datasets for reconstructing anatomy in fossil hominins using the extant phylogenetic bracket approach, which is frequently used for tetrapods clades outside of paleoanthropology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayc C Sedlmayr
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal and Ageing Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Jonathan J Wisco
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Emma R Schachner
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
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3
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Weinrich L, Paraskevaidis M, Schleip R, Agres AN, Tsitsilonis S. Does the Calcaneus Serve as Hypomochlion within the Lower Limb by a Myofascial Connection?-A Systematic Review. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11080745. [PMID: 34440492 PMCID: PMC8398293 DOI: 10.3390/life11080745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Clinical approaches have depicted interconnectivity between the Achilles tendon and the plantar fascia. This concept has been applied in rehabilitation, prevention, and in conservative management plans, yet potential anatomical and histological connection is not fully understood. (2) Objective: To explore the possible explanation that the calcaneus acts as a hypomochlion. (3) Methods: 2 databases (Pubmed and Livivo) were searched and studies, including those that examined the relationship of the calcaneus to the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia and its biomechanical role. The included studies highlighted either the anatomical, histological, or biomechanical aspect of the lower limb. (4) Results: Seventeen studies were included. Some studies depicted an anatomical connection that slowly declines with age. Others mention a histological similarity and continuity via the paratenon, while a few papers have brought forward mechanical reasoning. (5) Conclusion: The concept of the calcaneus acting as a fulcrum in the lower limb can partially be supported by anatomical, histological, and biomechanical concepts. Despite the plethora of research, a comprehensive understanding is yet to be investigated. Further research exploring the precise interaction is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luise Weinrich
- Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (L.W.); (M.P.)
| | - Melissa Paraskevaidis
- Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (L.W.); (M.P.)
| | - Robert Schleip
- Technische Universität München, 80333 München, Germany;
- Diploma University of Applied Sciences, 37242 Bad Sooden-Allendorf, Germany
| | - Alison N. Agres
- Julius Wolff Institute, Berlin Institute of Health and Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Serafeim Tsitsilonis
- Center for Musculoskeletal Surgery, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany; (L.W.); (M.P.)
- Correspondence:
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4
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McNutt EJ, DeSilva JM. Evidence for an elongated Achilles tendon in Australopithecus. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2020; 303:2382-2391. [PMID: 32134211 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Modern humans have the longest Achilles tendon (AT) of all the living primates. It has been proposed that this anatomy increases locomotor efficiency and that its elongation may have played a crucial role in the origin and early evolution of the genus Homo. Unfortunately, determining the length of the AT in extinct hominins has been difficult as tendons do not fossilize. Several methods have been proposed for estimating the length of the AT from calcaneal morphology, but the results have been inconclusive. This study tested the relationship between the area of the superior calcaneal facet and AT length in extant primates. The superior facet is instructive because it anchors the retrocalcaneal bursa, a soft tissue structure which helps to reduce friction between the AT and the calcaneus. Calcanei from 145 extant anthropoid primates from 12 genera were photographed in posterior view and the relative superior facet size quantified. AT lengths were obtained from published sources. The relative area of the superior facet is predictive of AT length in primates (R2 = 0.83; p < .001) and differs significantly between the great apes and humans (p < 0.001). When applied to fossil Australopithecus calcanei, our results suggest that australopiths possessed a longer, more human-like, AT than previously thought. These findings have important implications for the locomotor capabilities of Australopithecus, including their capacity for endurance running and climbing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellison J McNutt
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jeremy M DeSilva
- Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
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Sellers WI, Pond SB, Brassey CA, Manning PL, Bates KT. Investigating the running abilities of Tyrannosaurus rex using stress-constrained multibody dynamic analysis. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3420. [PMID: 28740745 PMCID: PMC5518979 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The running ability of Tyrannosaurus rex has been intensively studied due to its relevance to interpretations of feeding behaviour and the biomechanics of scaling in giant predatory dinosaurs. Different studies using differing methodologies have produced a very wide range of top speed estimates and there is therefore a need to develop techniques that can improve these predictions. Here we present a new approach that combines two separate biomechanical techniques (multibody dynamic analysis and skeletal stress analysis) to demonstrate that true running gaits would probably lead to unacceptably high skeletal loads in T. rex. Combining these two approaches reduces the high-level of uncertainty in previous predictions associated with unknown soft tissue parameters in dinosaurs, and demonstrates that the relatively long limb segments of T. rex—long argued to indicate competent running ability—would actually have mechanically limited this species to walking gaits. Being limited to walking speeds contradicts arguments of high-speed pursuit predation for the largest bipedal dinosaurs like T. rex, and demonstrates the power of multiphysics approaches for locomotor reconstructions of extinct animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- William I Sellers
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart B Pond
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte A Brassey
- School of Science and the Environment, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Philip L Manning
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.,Department of Geology and Environmental Geosciences, College of Charleston, Charleston, United States of America
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Goh C, Blanchard ML, Crompton RH, Gunther MM, Macaulay S, Bates KT. A 3D musculoskeletal model of the western lowland gorilla hind limb: moment arms and torque of the hip, knee and ankle. J Anat 2017; 231:568-584. [PMID: 28718217 PMCID: PMC5603783 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional musculoskeletal models have become increasingly common for investigating muscle moment arms in studies of vertebrate locomotion. In this study we present the first musculoskeletal model of a western lowland gorilla hind limb. Moment arms of individual muscles around the hip, knee and ankle were compared with previously published data derived from the experimental tendon travel method. Considerable differences were found which we attribute to the different methodologies in this specific case. In this instance, we argue that our 3D model provides more accurate and reliable moment arm data than previously published data on the gorilla because our model incorporates more detailed consideration of the 3D geometry of muscles and the geometric constraints that exist on their lines-of-action about limb joints. Our new data have led us to revaluate the previous conclusion that muscle moment arms in the gorilla hind limb are optimised for locomotion with crouched or flexed limb postures. Furthermore, we found that bipedalism and terrestrial quadrupedalism coincided more regularly with higher moment arms and torque around the hip, knee and ankle than did vertical climbing. This indicates that the ability of a gorilla to walk bipedally is not restricted by musculoskeletal adaptations for quadrupedalism and vertical climbing, at least in terms of moment arms and torque about hind limb joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen Goh
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Robin H Crompton
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Michael M Gunther
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sophie Macaulay
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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7
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Peyer KE, Brassey CA, Rose KA, Sellers WI. Locomotion pattern and foot pressure adjustments during gentle turns in healthy subjects. J Biomech 2017; 60:65-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2017.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Bribiesca-Contreras F, Sellers WI. Three-dimensional visualisation of the internal anatomy of the sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus) forelimb using contrast-enhanced micro-computed tomography. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3039. [PMID: 28316884 PMCID: PMC5356476 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Gross dissection is a widespread method for studying animal anatomy, despite being highly destructive and time-consuming. X-ray computed tomography (CT) has been shown to be a non-destructive alternative for studying anatomical structures. However, in the past it has been limited to only being able to visualise mineralised tissues. In recent years, morphologists have started to use traditional X-ray contrast agents to allow the visualisation of soft tissue elements in the CT context. The aim of this project is to assess the ability of contrast-enhanced micro-CT (μCT) to construct a three-dimensional (3D) model of the musculoskeletal system of the bird wing and to quantify muscle geometry and any systematic changes due to shrinkage. We expect that this reconstruction can be used as an anatomical guide to the sparrowhawk wing musculature and form the basis of further biomechanical analysis of flight. Methods A 3% iodine-buffered formalin solution with a 25-day staining period was used to visualise the wing myology of the sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus). μCT scans of the wing were taken over the staining period until full penetration of the forelimb musculature by iodine was reached. A 3D model was reconstructed by manually segmenting out the individual elements of the avian wing using 3D visualisation software. Results Different patterns of contrast were observed over the duration of the staining treatment with the best results occurring after 25 days of staining. Staining made it possible to visualise and identify different elements of the soft tissue of the wing. Finally, a 3D reconstruction of the musculoskeletal system of the sparrowhawk wing is presented and numerical data of muscle geometry is compared to values obtained by dissection. Discussion Contrast-enhanced μCT allows the visualisation and identification of the wing myology of birds, including the smaller muscles in the hand, and provides a non-destructive way for quantifying muscle volume with an accuracy of 96.2%. By combining contrast-enhanced μCT with 3D visualisation techniques, it is possible to study the individual muscles of the forelimb in their original position and 3D design, which can be the basis of further biomechanical analysis. Because the stain can be washed out post analysis, this technique provides a means of obtaining quantitative muscle data from museum specimens non-destructively.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William I Sellers
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester , Manchester , UK
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9
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Hora M, Soumar L, Pontzer H, Sládek V. Body size and lower limb posture during walking in humans. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172112. [PMID: 28192522 PMCID: PMC5305206 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
We test whether locomotor posture is associated with body mass and lower limb length in humans and explore how body size and posture affect net joint moments during walking. We acquired gait data for 24 females and 25 males using a three-dimensional motion capture system and pressure-measuring insoles. We employed the general linear model and commonality analysis to assess the independent effect of body mass and lower limb length on flexion angles at the hip, knee, and ankle while controlling for sex and velocity. In addition, we used inverse dynamics to model the effect of size and posture on net joint moments. At early stance, body mass has a negative effect on knee flexion (p < 0.01), whereas lower limb length has a negative effect on hip flexion (p < 0.05). Body mass uniquely explains 15.8% of the variance in knee flexion, whereas lower limb length uniquely explains 5.4% of the variance in hip flexion. Both of the detected relationships between body size and posture are consistent with the moment moderating postural adjustments predicted by our model. At late stance, no significant relationship between body size and posture was detected. Humans of greater body size reduce the flexion of the hip and knee at early stance, which results in the moderation of net moments at these joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Hora
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
- * E-mail:
| | - Libor Soumar
- CASRI - Sports Research Institute of Czech Armed Forces, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Herman Pontzer
- Department of Anthropology, Hunter College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Vladimír Sládek
- Department of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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10
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Halsey LG, Coward SRL, Crompton RH, Thorpe SKS. Practice makes perfect: Performance optimisation in 'arboreal' parkour athletes illuminates the evolutionary ecology of great ape anatomy. J Hum Evol 2017; 103:45-52. [PMID: 28166907 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
An animal's size is central to its ecology, yet remarkably little is known about the selective pressures that drive this trait. A particularly compelling example is how ancestral apes evolved large body mass in such a physically and energetically challenging environment as the forest canopy, where weight-bearing branches and lianas are flexible, irregular and discontinuous, and the majority of preferred foods are situated on the most flexible branches at the periphery of tree crowns. To date the issue has been intractable due to a lack of relevant fossil material, the limited capacity of the fossil record to reconstruct an animal's behavioural ecology and the inability to measure energy consumption in freely moving apes. We studied the oxygen consumption of parkour athletes while they traversed an arboreal-like course as an elite model ape, to test the ecomorphological and behavioural mechanisms by which a large-bodied ape could optimize its energetic performance during tree-based locomotion. Our results show that familiarity with the arboreal-like course allowed the athletes to substantially reduce their energy expenditure. Furthermore, athletes with larger arm spans and shorter legs were particularly adept at finding energetic savings. Our results flesh out the scanty fossil record to offer evidence that long, strong arms, broad chests and a strong axial system, combined with the frequent use of uniform branch-to-branch arboreal pathways, were critical to off-setting the mechanical and energetic demands of large mass in ancestral apes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis G Halsey
- Centre for Research in Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Roehampton, Holybourne Avenue, London, SW15 4JD, UK.
| | - Samuel R L Coward
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Robin H Crompton
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Ashton Street, Liverpool, L69 3GE, UK.
| | - Susannah K S Thorpe
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
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11
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Butler EE, Dominy NJ. Architecture and functional ecology of the human gastrocnemius muscle-tendon unit. J Anat 2015; 228:561-8. [PMID: 26712532 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The gastrocnemius muscle-tendon unit (MTU) is central to human locomotion. Structural variation in the human gastrocnemius MTU is predicted to affect the efficiency of locomotion, a concept most often explored in the context of performance activities. For example, stiffness of the Achilles tendon varies among individuals with different histories of competitive running. Such a finding highlights the functional variation of individuals and raises the possibility of similar variation between populations, perhaps in response to specific ecological or environmental demands. Researchers often assume minimal variation in human populations, or that industrialized populations represent the human species as well as any other. Yet rainforest hunter-gatherers, which often express the human pygmy phenotype, contradict such assumptions. Indeed, the human pygmy phenotype is a potential model system for exploring the range of ecomorphological variation in the architecture of human hindlimb muscles, a concept we review here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E Butler
- Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA.,William H. Neukom Institute for Computational Science, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Nathaniel J Dominy
- Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
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12
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Püschel TA, Sellers WI. Standing on the shoulders of apes: Analyzing the form and function of the hominoid scapula using geometric morphometrics and finite element analysis. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2015; 159:325-41. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A. Püschel
- Computational and Evolutionary Biology Group, Faculty of Life Sciences; University of Manchester; Manchester M13 9PT UK
| | - William I. Sellers
- Computational and Evolutionary Biology Group, Faculty of Life Sciences; University of Manchester; Manchester M13 9PT UK
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13
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Abstract
Although anatomic and functional relationship has been established between the gastrocnemius muscle, via the Achilles tendon, and the plantar fascia, the exact role of gastrocnemius tightness in foot and plantar fascia problems is not completely understood. This article summarizes past and current literature linking these 2 structures and gives a mechanical explanation based on functional models of the relationship between gastrocnemius tightness and plantar fascia. The effect of gastrocnemius tightness on the sagittal behavior of the foot is also discussed.
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14
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Griffin NL, Miller CE, Schmitt D, D'Août K. Understanding the evolution of the windlass mechanism of the human foot from comparative anatomy: Insights, obstacles, and future directions. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 156:1-10. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L. Griffin
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology; Temple University School of Medicine; Philadelphia PA 19140
| | | | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology; Duke University; NC
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology; Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool; Liverpool UK
- Department of Biology; University of Antwerp, Antwerp; Belgium
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15
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Sellers WI, Margetts L, Coria RA, Manning PL. March of the titans: the locomotor capabilities of sauropod dinosaurs. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78733. [PMID: 24348896 PMCID: PMC3864407 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- William Irvin Sellers
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Lee Margetts
- IT Services for Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Rodolfo Aníbal Coria
- CONICET - Universidad Nacional de Río Negro - Subsecretaría de Cultura de Neuquén, Museo Carmen Funes, Plaza Huincul, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - Phillip Lars Manning
- School of Earth, Atmospheric & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom
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16
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Sellers WI, Margetts L, Bates KT, Chamberlain AT. Exploring diagonal gait using a forward dynamic three-dimensional chimpanzee simulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 84:180-200. [PMID: 23867835 DOI: 10.1159/000351562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Primates are unusual among terrestrial quadrupedal mammals in that at walking speeds they prefer diagonal rather than lateral gaits. A number of reasons have been proposed for this preference in relation to the arboreal ancestry of modern primates: stability, energetic cost, neural control, skeletal loading, and limb interference avoiding. However, this is a difficult question to explore experimentally since most primates only occasionally use anything other than diagonal gaits. An alternative approach is to produce biologically realistic computer simulations of primate gait that enable the constraints of biomechanical loading and the energetics of different modes of locomotion to be explored. In this paper we describe such a model for the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes. The simulation is able to produce spontaneous quadrupedal locomotion, and the footfall sequences generated are split between lateral and diagonal footfall sequences with no obvious energetic benefit associated with either option. However, out of 10 successful simulation runs, 5 were lateral sequence/lateral couplet gaits indicating a preference for a specific lateral footfall sequence with a relatively tightly constrained phase difference between the fore- and hindlimbs. This suggests that the choice of diagonal walking gaits in chimpanzees is not a simple mechanical phenomenon and that diagonal walking gaits in primates are selected for by multiple factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- W I Sellers
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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17
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Kuo S, Desilva JM, Devlin MJ, Mcdonald G, Morgan EF. The Effect of the Achilles Tendon on Trabecular Structure in the Primate Calcaneus. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2013; 296:1509-17. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.22739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Kuo
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; 232 Bay State Road Boston Massachusetts
- Department of Applied Forensic Sciences; Mercyhurst University; 501 E. 38th Street Erie Pennsylvania
| | - Jeremy M. Desilva
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; 232 Bay State Road Boston Massachusetts
| | - Maureen J. Devlin
- Department of Anthropology; University of Michigan; 1085 South University Avenue Ann Arbor Michigan
| | - Gabriel Mcdonald
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; Boston University; 110 Cummington Street Boston Massachusetts
| | - Elise F. Morgan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; Boston University; 110 Cummington Street Boston Massachusetts
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18
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Springs, steroids, and slingshots: the roles of enhancers and constraints in animal movement. J Comp Physiol B 2013; 183:583-95. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-012-0734-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Revised: 11/27/2012] [Accepted: 12/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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19
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Miller RH, Umberger BR, Hamill J, Caldwell GE. Evaluation of the minimum energy hypothesis and other potential optimality criteria for human running. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 279:1498-505. [PMID: 22072601 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A popular hypothesis for human running is that gait mechanics and muscular activity are optimized in order to minimize the cost of transport (CoT). Humans running at any particular speed appear to naturally select a stride length that maintains a low CoT when compared with other possible stride lengths. However, it is unknown if the nervous system prioritizes the CoT itself for minimization, or if some other quantity is minimized and a low CoT is a consequential effect. To address this question, we generated predictive computer simulations of running using an anatomically inspired musculoskeletal model and compared the results with data collected from human runners. Three simulations were generated by minimizing the CoT, the total muscle activation or the total muscle stress, respectively. While all the simulations qualitatively resembled real human running, minimizing activation predicted the most realistic joint angles and timing of muscular activity. While minimizing the CoT naturally predicted the lowest CoT, minimizing activation predicted a more realistic CoT in comparison with the experimental mean. The results suggest a potential control strategy centred on muscle activation for economical running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross H Miller
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA.
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20
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Limitations to maximum sprinting speed imposed by muscle mechanical properties. J Biomech 2011; 45:1092-7. [PMID: 22035638 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2011.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2011] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that the force-velocity relationship of skeletal muscle plays a critical limiting role in the maximum speed at which humans can sprint. However, this theory has not been tested directly, and it is possible that other muscle mechanical properties play limiting roles as well. In this study, forward dynamics simulations of human sprinting were generated using a 2D musculoskeletal model actuated by Hill muscle models. The initial simulation results compared favorably to kinetic, kinematic, and electromyographic data recorded from sprinting humans. Muscle mechanical properties were then removed in isolation to quantify their effect on maximum sprinting speed. Removal of the force-velocity, excitation-activation, and force-length relationships increased the maximum speed by 15, 8, and 4%, respectively. Removal of the series elastic force-extension relationship decreased the maximum speed by 26%. Each relationship affected both stride length and stride frequency except for the force-length relationship, which mainly affected stride length. Removal of all muscular properties entirely (optimized joint torques) increased speed (+22%) to a greater extent than the removal of any single contractile property. The results indicate that the force-velocity relationship is indeed the most important contractile property of muscle regarding limits to maximum sprinting speed, but that other muscular properties also play important roles. Interactions between the various muscular properties should be considered when explaining limits to maximal human performance.
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21
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Zipfel B, DeSilva JM, Kidd RS, Carlson KJ, Churchill SE, Berger LR. The foot and ankle of Australopithecus sediba. Science 2011; 333:1417-20. [PMID: 21903807 DOI: 10.1126/science.1202703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
A well-preserved and articulated partial foot and ankle of Australopithecus sediba, including an associated complete adult distal tibia, talus, and calcaneus, have been discovered at the Malapa site, South Africa, and reported in direct association with the female paratype Malapa Hominin 2. These fossils reveal a mosaic of primitive and derived features that are distinct from those seen in other hominins. The ankle (talocrural) joint is mostly humanlike in form and inferred function, and there is some evidence for a humanlike arch and Achilles tendon. However, Au. sediba is apelike in possessing a more gracile calcaneal body and a more robust medial malleolus than expected. These observations suggest, if present models of foot function are correct, that Au. sediba may have practiced a unique form of bipedalism and some degree of arboreality. Given the combination of features in the Au. sediba foot, as well as comparisons between Au. sediba and older hominins, homoplasy is implied in the acquisition of bipedal adaptations in the hominin foot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Zipfel
- Institute for Human Evolution, University of the Witwatersrand, Post Office Wits, 2050 Wits, South Africa.
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22
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Understanding muscle energetics in locomotion: new modeling and experimental approaches. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2011; 39:59-67. [PMID: 21206279 DOI: 10.1097/jes.0b013e31820d7bc5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Recent estimates of muscle energy consumption during locomotion, based on computational models and muscle blood flow measurements, demonstrate complex patterns of energy use across the gait cycle, which are further complicated when task demands change. A deeper understanding of muscle energetics in locomotion will benefit from efforts to more tightly integrate muscle-specific approaches with organismal measurements.
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Wareing K, Tickle PG, Stokkan KA, Codd JR, Sellers WI. The musculoskeletal anatomy of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus): fore- and hindlimb. Polar Biol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-011-1017-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Crompton RH, Sellers WI, Thorpe SKS. Arboreality, terrestriality and bipedalism. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365:3301-14. [PMID: 20855304 PMCID: PMC2981953 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The full publication of Ardipithecus ramidus has particular importance for the origins of hominin bipedality, and strengthens the growing case for an arboreal origin. Palaeontological techniques however inevitably concentrate on details of fragmentary postcranial bones and can benefit from a whole-animal perspective. This can be provided by field studies of locomotor behaviour, which provide a real-world perspective of adaptive context, against which conclusions drawn from palaeontology and comparative osteology may be assessed and honed. Increasingly sophisticated dynamic modelling techniques, validated against experimental data for living animals, offer a different perspective where evolutionary and virtual ablation experiments, impossible for living mammals, may be run in silico, and these can analyse not only the interactions and behaviour of rigid segments but increasingly the effects of compliance, which are of crucial importance in guiding the evolution of an arboreally derived lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Huw Crompton
- Primate Evolution and Morphology Research Group, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Sherrington Buildings, Ashton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK.
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