Severity of Autism Spectrum Disorders: Current Conceptualization, and Transition to DSM-5

The Neurogenetics of Functional Connectivity Alterations in Autism: Insights From Subtyping in 657 Individuals

BACKGROUND

There is little consensus and controversial evidence on anatomical alterations in the brains of people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), due in part to the large heterogeneity present in ASD, which in turn is a major drawback for developing therapies. One strategy to characterize this heterogeneity in ASD is to cluster large-scale functional brain connectivity profiles.

METHODS

A subtyping approach based on consensus clustering of functional brain connectivity patterns was applied to a population of 657 autistic individuals with quality-assured neuroimaging data. We then used high-resolution gene transcriptomic data to characterize the molecular mechanism behind each subtype by performing enrichment analysis of the set of genes showing a high spatial similarity with the profiles of functional connectivity alterations between each subtype and a group of typically developing control participants.

RESULTS

Two major stable subtypes were found: subtype 1 exhibited hypoconnectivity (less average connectivity than typically developing control participants) and subtype 2, hyperconnectivity. The 2 subtypes did not differ in structural imaging metrics in any of the analyzed regions (68 cortical and 14 subcortical) or in any of the behavioral scores (including IQ, Autism Diagnostic Interview, and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule). Finally, only subtype 2, comprising about 43% of ASD participants, led to significant enrichments after multiple testing corrections. Notably, the dominant enrichment corresponded to excitation/inhibition imbalance, a leading well-known primary mechanism in the pathophysiology of ASD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support a link between excitation/inhibition imbalance and functional connectivity alterations, but only in one ASD subtype, overall characterized by brain hyperconnectivity and major alterations in somatomotor and default mode networks.

Intellectual, Adaptive, and Behavioral Functioning Associated with Designated Levels of Support in a Sample of Autistic Children Referred for Tertiary Assessment

The diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder in the DSM-5-TR features the option to designate levels of support for social communication (SC) and restricted, repetitive behaviors (RRB). These levels are conceptual in nature, but research indicates standardized assessment outcomes correspond with clinician-assigned levels of support. The purpose of the present study was to identify factors that influence designated levels of support for SC and RRBs when diagnosing autism. Standardized assessment scores across intellectual functioning, adaptive skills, and ASD symptomology were analyzed to determine corresponding levels of support in SC and RRBs assigned by clinicians for 136 autistic children following a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation. At diagnosis, approximately 46% of participants were described as needing substantial support (Level 2) for SC and 49% were described as needing substantial support (Level 2) for RRB. There was a consistent pattern of higher to lower intellectual and adaptive functioning needing Level 1-Level 3 support. Autism assessment results followed a gradient of fewer to greater autism symptoms from Level 1 to Level 3 support. Findings indicated clinician-assigned levels of support for SC and RRB were associated with intellectual functioning, adaptive functioning, autism symptomology, and age, but not sex.

A personalized classification of behavioral severity of autism spectrum disorder using a comprehensive machine learning framework

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized as a neurodevelopmental disorder with a heterogeneous nature, influenced by genetics and exhibiting diverse clinical presentations. In this study, we dissect Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) into its behavioral components, mirroring the diagnostic process used in clinical settings. Morphological features are extracted from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, found in the publicly available dataset ABIDE II, identifying the most discriminative features that differentiate ASD within various behavioral domains. Then, each subject is categorized as having severe, moderate, or mild ASD, or typical neurodevelopment (TD), based on the behavioral domains of the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). Through this study, multiple artificial intelligence (AI) models are utilized for feature selection and classifying each ASD severity and behavioural group. A multivariate feature selection algorithm, investigating four different classifiers with linear and non-linear hypotheses, is applied iteratively while shuffling the training-validation subjects to find the set of cortical regions with statistically significant association with ASD. A set of six classifiers are optimized and trained on the selected set of features using 5-fold cross-validation for the purpose of severity classification for each behavioural group. Our AI-based model achieved an average accuracy of 96%, computed as the mean accuracy across the top-performing AI models for feature selection and severity classification across the different behavioral groups. The proposed AI model has the ability to accurately differentiate between the functionalities of specific brain regions, such as the left and right caudal middle frontal regions. We propose an AI-based model that dissects ASD into behavioral components. For each behavioral component, the AI-based model is capable of identifying the brain regions which are associated with ASD as well as utilizing those regions for diagnosis. The proposed system can increase the speed and accuracy of the diagnostic process and result in improved outcomes for individuals with ASD, highlighting the potential of AI in this area.

Attitudes among parents of persons with autism spectrum disorder towards information about genetic risk and future health

Clinical relevance of genetic testing is increasing in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Information about genetic risk may contribute to improved diagnostics, treatment and family planning, but may also be perceived as a burden. Knowledge about the families' preferences with regard to genetic risk information is important for both health care professionals and policy makers. We investigated attitudes towards sharing information about genetic risk of ASD and knowledge about future health among parent members of the Norwegian Autism Association (N = 1455) using a questionnaire, and the relationships with parent and child characteristics, such as age, gender and ASD severity. Most preferred autonomy in deciding whom to inform about genetic risk of ASD (74.4%) and a minority supported extensive intra-familial disclosure of the genetic risk (41.1%). The majority agreed that it is an obligation to know as much as possible relevant for future health (58.0%) and only 51.7% agreed to a principle of a 'right not to know'. In regression models, the attitudes were associated with opinions about benefits and harms of genetic testing (e.g., treatment, family planning, understanding of ASD pathology, insurance discrimination and family conflict). In sum, the findings show that most parents want to know as much as possible relevant for their children's future health and keep their autonomy and intra-familial confidentiality about genetic risk information. Nearly half of the parents were not concerned with a "right not to know". These attitudes can inform development of guidelines and bioethics in the age of genomic precision medicine.

Participation in preschool activities of children with autistic spectrum disorder and comparison to typically developing children

BACKGROUND

Participation is essential to children's development and is a major focus of intervention. This study aimed to describe the participation patterns of children with ASD, in comparison to typically developing (TD) children.

METHODS

70 preschoolers participated: 33 children with ASD, attending non-inclusive-education settings; and 37 TD children, attending mainstream educational settings. Two occupational therapists assessed their participation through structured observations in self-care activities, play, learning, and social participation areas; demographic and environmental questionnaires were also completed.

RESULTS

In the ASD group, frequency of participation was found to be significantly higher in ADL and learning than in other areas; level of performance was found to be significantly lower in social participation than in other areas. The TD group scored significantly higher than did the ASD group in most areas and scales. Initial findings tentatively showed that a structured educational environment for children with ASD may increase participation frequency.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings are consistent with recognized disabilities in play and social participation among children with ASD, and their limitations in participation, compared to their TD peers in most areas. Further studies are needed to evaluate additional psychometric properties of the different scales, and the impact of educational environments on participation.

Disentangling the relationship of gut microbiota, functional gastrointestinal disorders and autism: a case-control study on prepubertal Chinese boys

Emerging evidence of an altered gut microbiome in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) suggests a pathomechanism through the gut-brain axis despite the inconsistent microbiome profile reported across studies. One of the knowledge gaps in the existing ASD microbiota studies is the lack of systematic exploration of the role of comorbid functional gastrointestinal disorder (FGID) in the association of ASD and altered gut microbiome. Consequently, 92 ASD and 112 age-matched typically developing (TD) boys were profiled on general psychopathology, FGID status by Rome IV classification, and gut microbiota using 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing at the V4 hypervariable region. Compared to TD, a significant decrease in the within-sample abundance of taxa was observed in ASD, regardless of FGID status. The microbiota of ASD FGID+ and ASD FGID- clustered apart from the TD groups. The microbiota of ASD FGID+ also showed qualitative differences from that of ASD FGID- and had the highest-level Firmicutes: Bacteroidetes ratio, which was paralleled by elevated levels of anxiety and overall psychopathology. The altered gastrointestinal microbiota composition in ASD appeared to be independent of comorbid FGID. Further studies should address how FGID may mediate neuropsychiatric symptoms in ASD through inflammation along the microbiota-gut-brain axis.

Comparison of Verbal Performance of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder on the WISC-V

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display variable verbal cognitive profiles despite a historical requirement for a language delay in autistic disorder. This study compared the Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) to the newly created ancillary index score, the Verbal Expanded Crystallized Index (VECI) of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V) in a group of children with ASD. Using the ASD sample from the standardization data of the WISC-V, results indicated the VCI and VECI were significantly different for the ASD group but not for the matched controls. Follow up analysis of the ASD group revealed the VCI and VECI were significantly different for those with language impairment but not for those without language impairment. Psychologists should consider administering all verbal subtests of the WISC-V to children with ASD given the VECI may better capture the language impairment seen in this population.

Effects of Square-Stepping Exercise on Motor and Cognitive Skills in Autism Spectrum Disorder Children and Adolescents: A Study Protocol

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnoses present not only cognitive, emotional, communicative, and social challenges but also movement issues that affect their everyday activities, learning, and leisure. The use of the square-stepping exercise (SSE), a motor program initially created to strengthen the lower limbs of older adults, is spreading because of its advantages (e.g., balance and lower limb strength improvements). A study protocol to assess the SSE effects on motor, sensory, and cognitive skills in Spanish children and adolescents between 6 and 12 years old with ASD diagnoses is presented. A randomised clinical will be performed, recruiting 52 children and adolescents with ASD who will be distributed into two groups: an experimental (n = 26) and a control (n = 26) group. The SSE sessions will be held for 9 weeks (two times per week). The main variable will be balance, which will be measured with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2 (MABC2), and secondary outcomes will include sensory processing, attention, and executive functions. Assessments will be carried out before and at the end of the program implementation, including an additional follow up one month later. If this program obtains positive results, it should be implemented in different settings (schools, clinics, associations, etc.) to improve the quality of movement and development in children and adolescents with ASD, as it is an easy-to-use and structured tool.

Factors Associated with Restricted, Repetitive Behaviors and Interests and Diagnostic Severity Level Ratings in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior and interests (RRBIs). With the latest update to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a severity level rating is assigned to the two core features of ASD (American Psychiatric Association in Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 5 American Psychiatric Association Washington, D.C., 2013). Previous studies have identified factors associated with RRBI severity; however, the relationship among RRBIs, adaptive functioning, and diagnostic severity level remains unclear. The present study investigated whether adaptive functioning and parent-reported ASD symptoms predict RRBI severity in young children with ASD. Additionally, a fine-grained analysis was conducted to examine the factors associated with diagnostic severity level ratings. Several significant associations were found. Study findings and implications for assessment and treatment of RRBIs are discussed.

How well are DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for ASD represented in standardized diagnostic instruments?

Five years after the publication of DSM-5 in 2013, three widely used diagnostic instruments have published algorithms designed to represent its (sub-)criteria for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in children and adolescents. This study aimed to: (1) establish the content validity of these three DSM-5-adapted algorithms, and (2) identify problems with the operationalization of DSM-5 diagnostic criteria in measurable and observable behaviors. Algorithm items of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition (ADOS-2), Developmental, Dimensional and Diagnostic Interview (3di) and Diagnostic Interview for Social and Communication Disorders-11th edition (DISCO-11) were mapped onto DSM-5 sub-criteria. The development and decision-making rules integrated in their algorithms were then compared with DSM-5. Results demonstrated significant variability in the number and nature of sub-criteria covered by the ADOS-2, 3di and DISCO-11. In addition to differences in the development of algorithms and cut-off scores, instruments also differed in the extent to which they follow DSM-5 decision-making rules for diagnostic classification. We conclude that such differences in interpretation of DSM-5 criteria provide a challenge for symptom operationalization which will be most effectively overcome by consensus, testing and reformulation.

Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms are Associated with Connectivity Between Large-Scale Neural Networks and Brain Regions Involved in Social Processing

The neurobiology of autism spectrum disorder remains poorly understood. The present study addresses this knowledge gap by examining the relationship between functional brain connectivity and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) scores using publicly available data from the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange (ABIDE) database (N = 107). This relationship was tested across all brain voxels, without a priori assumptions, using a novel statistical approach. ADOS scores were primarily associated with decreased connectivity to right temporoparietal junction, right anterior insula, and left fusiform gyrus (p < 0.05, corrected). Seven large-scale brain networks influenced these associations. Findings largely encompassed brain regions involved in processing socially relevant information, highlighting the importance of these processes in autism spectrum disorder.

Factors associated with autism severity among Malaysian children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) of different levels of symptom severity may exhibit a wide range of behaviours and characteristics. There is a limited nutrition-related study on children with ASD of different severity in Malaysia.

AIMS

This cross-sectional study aims to determine the association between sociodemographic factors, parental factors, and lifestyle factors with autism severity in children with ASD.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A total of 224 children with ASD were included in this study. Their mothers completed a self-administered questionnaire on sociodemographic characteristics, autism severity, parenting style, parental feeding practices, parenting stress, child's sleep habits and eating behaviours.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

As high as 78.1 % of the children with ASD demonstrated a high level of autism severity. Multiple linear regression showed that father's employment status (B = 6.970, 95 % CI = 3.172, 10.768, p < 0.001) and perceived child weight (B = 3.338, 95 % CI = 1.350, 5.327, p = 0.001) predicted autism severity.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Children with ASD in this study had a high level of autism severity. Regular anthropometric measurements by healthcare professionals should be conducted at the autism intervention centres. It is important to have multidisciplinary collaboration in future research to develop customised guidelines for parents with autistic children.

The Protracted Maturation of Associative Layer IIIC Pyramidal Neurons in the Human Prefrontal Cortex During Childhood: A Major Role in Cognitive Development and Selective Alteration in Autism

The human specific cognitive shift starts around the age of 2 years with the onset of self-awareness, and continues with extraordinary increase in cognitive capacities during early childhood. Diffuse changes in functional connectivity in children aged 2-6 years indicate an increase in the capacity of cortical network. Interestingly, structural network complexity does not increase during this time and, thus, it is likely to be induced by selective maturation of a specific neuronal subclass. Here, we provide an overview of a subclass of cortico-cortical neurons, the associative layer IIIC pyramids of the human prefrontal cortex. Their local axonal collaterals are in control of the prefrontal cortico-cortical output, while their long projections modulate inter-areal processing. In this way, layer IIIC pyramids are the major integrative element of cortical processing, and changes in their connectivity patterns will affect global cortical functioning. Layer IIIC neurons have a unique pattern of dendritic maturation. In contrast to other classes of principal neurons, they undergo an additional phase of extensive dendritic growth during early childhood, and show characteristic molecular changes. Taken together, circuits associated with layer IIIC neurons have the most protracted period of developmental plasticity. This unique feature is advanced but also provides a window of opportunity for pathological events to disrupt normal formation of cognitive circuits involving layer IIIC neurons. In this manuscript, we discuss how disrupted dendritic and axonal maturation of layer IIIC neurons may lead into global cortical disconnectivity, affecting development of complex communication and social abilities. We also propose a model that developmentally dictated incorporation of layer IIIC neurons into maturing cortico-cortical circuits between 2 to 6 years will reveal a previous (perinatal) lesion affecting other classes of principal neurons. This "disclosure" of pre-existing functionally silent lesions of other neuronal classes induced by development of layer IIIC associative neurons, or their direct alteration, could be found in different forms of autism spectrum disorders. Understanding the gene-environment interaction in shaping cognitive microcircuitries may be fundamental for developing rehabilitation and prevention strategies in autism spectrum and other cognitive disorders.

Validation of the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised in Spanish-Speakers Participants with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB) is one of the two key diagnostic features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). DSM-5 highlights the importance of severity-based diagnostic modifiers assigned on the basis of intensity of needed supports. Therefore, there is a need for available measures that assess the severity of RRB. The repetitive behavior scale-revised (RBS-R) is probably the most used informant-based rating scale for the assessment of RRB and interests observed in ASD. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the RBS-R in a sample of 233 participants with ASD, aged 3 to 63 years. Results revealed a six-factor model, good internal consistency, and concurrent-divergent validity. These findings suggest the utility of the Spanish version of RBS-R.

Disruption of mTOR and MAPK pathways correlates with severity in idiopathic autism

The molecular signature underlying autism spectrum disorder remains largely unknown. This study identifies differential expression of mTOR and MAPK pathways in patients affected by mild and severe idiopathic autism. A total of 55 subjects were enrolled, of which 22 were typically developing individuals and 33 were patients aged between 3 and 11 years, with autism spectrum disorder. A detailed history, including physical examination, developmental evaluation, mental health history and autism diagnostic observation schedule were performed for each patient. Components of the mTOR and MAPK signalling pathways were analysed from peripheral blood at the protein level. Patients were then stratified according to their clinical phenotypes, and the molecular profiling was analysed in relation to the degree of autism severity. In this cohort of patients, we identified increased activity of mTOR and the MAPK pathways, key regulators of synaptogenesis and protein synthesis. Specifically, rpS6, p-eIF4E, TSC1 and p-MNK1 expression discriminated patients according to their clinical diagnosis, suggesting that components of protein synthesis signalling pathways might constitute a molecular signature of clinical severity in autism spectrum disorder.

Correlates of DSM-5 Autism Spectrum Disorder Levels of Support Ratings in a Clinical Sample

The DSM-5 features level of support ratings for social communication (SC) and restrictive and repetitive behaviors (RRB) for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We contrasted cognitive, adaptive, and autism severity scores across SC and RRB groups for 158 individuals with ASD diagnosed in a developmental disabilities clinic. Roughly 46% of individuals were identified by licensed psychologists' clinical judgement as needing Level 2 SC support and 49% were identified as needing Level 2 RRB support. No individuals were rated as needing a combination of Level 1/Level 3 supports across domains. MANOVA and direct discriminant analysis revealed that both SC and RRB groups showed a graded pattern of higher adaptation/lower autism severity to lower adaptation/higher autism severity from Level 1 to Level 3.

Prenatal paracetamol exposure and child neurodevelopment: A review

BACKGROUND

The non-prescription medication paracetamol (acetaminophen, APAP) is currently recommended as a safe pain and fever treatment during pregnancy. However, recent studies suggest a possible association between APAP use in pregnancy and offspring neurodevelopment.

OBJECTIVES

To conduct a review of publications reporting associations between prenatal APAP use and offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes.

METHODS

Relevant sources were identified through a key word search of multiple databases (Medline, CINAHL, OVID and TOXNET) in September 2016. All English language observational studies of pregnancy APAP and three classes of neurodevelopmental outcomes (autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and intelligence quotient (IQ)) were included. One reviewer (AZB) independently screened all titles and abstracts, extracted and analyzed the data.

RESULTS

64 studies were retrieved and 55 were ineligible. Nine prospective cohort studies fulfilled all inclusion criteria. Data pooling was not appropriate due to heterogeneity in outcomes. All included studies suggested an association between prenatal APAP exposure and the neurodevelopmental outcomes; ADHD, ASD, or lower IQ. Longer duration of APAP use was associated with increased risk. Associations were strongest for hyperactivity and attention-related outcomes. Little modification of associations by indication for use was reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these nine studies suggest an increased risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes following prenatal APAP exposure. Further studies are urgently needed with; precise indication of use and exposure assessment of use both in utero and in early life. Given the current findings, pregnant women should be cautioned against indiscriminate use of APAP. These results have substantial public health implications.

Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among Children Aged 8 Years - Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014

PROBLEM/CONDITION

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

PERIOD COVERED

2014.

DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM

The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network is an active surveillance system that provides estimates of the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among children aged 8 years whose parents or guardians reside within 11 ADDM sites in the United States (Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Wisconsin). ADDM surveillance is conducted in two phases. The first phase involves review and abstraction of comprehensive evaluations that were completed by professional service providers in the community. Staff completing record review and abstraction receive extensive training and supervision and are evaluated according to strict reliability standards to certify effective initial training, identify ongoing training needs, and ensure adherence to the prescribed methodology. Record review and abstraction occurs in a variety of data sources ranging from general pediatric health clinics to specialized programs serving children with developmental disabilities. In addition, most of the ADDM sites also review records for children who have received special education services in public schools. In the second phase of the study, all abstracted information is reviewed systematically by experienced clinicians to determine ASD case status. A child is considered to meet the surveillance case definition for ASD if he or she displays behaviors, as described on one or more comprehensive evaluations completed by community-based professional providers, consistent with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder; pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS, including atypical autism); or Asperger disorder. This report provides updated ASD prevalence estimates for children aged 8 years during the 2014 surveillance year, on the basis of DSM-IV-TR criteria, and describes characteristics of the population of children with ASD. In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association published the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), which made considerable changes to ASD diagnostic criteria. The change in ASD diagnostic criteria might influence ADDM ASD prevalence estimates; therefore, most (85%) of the records used to determine prevalence estimates based on DSM-IV-TR criteria underwent additional review under a newly operationalized surveillance case definition for ASD consistent with the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. Children meeting this new surveillance case definition could qualify on the basis of one or both of the following criteria, as documented in abstracted comprehensive evaluations: 1) behaviors consistent with the DSM-5 diagnostic features; and/or 2) an ASD diagnosis, whether based on DSM-IV-TR or DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. Stratified comparisons of the number of children meeting either of these two case definitions also are reported.

RESULTS

For 2014, the overall prevalence of ASD among the 11 ADDM sites was 16.8 per 1,000 (one in 59) children aged 8 years. Overall ASD prevalence estimates varied among sites, from 13.1-29.3 per 1,000 children aged 8 years. ASD prevalence estimates also varied by sex and race/ethnicity. Males were four times more likely than females to be identified with ASD. Prevalence estimates were higher for non-Hispanic white (henceforth, white) children compared with non-Hispanic black (henceforth, black) children, and both groups were more likely to be identified with ASD compared with Hispanic children. Among the nine sites with sufficient data on intellectual ability, 31% of children with ASD were classified in the range of intellectual disability (intelligence quotient [IQ] <70), 25% were in the borderline range (IQ 71-85), and 44% had IQ scores in the average to above average range (i.e., IQ >85). The distribution of intellectual ability varied by sex and race/ethnicity. Although mention of developmental concerns by age 36 months was documented for 85% of children with ASD, only 42% had a comprehensive evaluation on record by age 36 months. The median age of earliest known ASD diagnosis was 52 months and did not differ significantly by sex or race/ethnicity. For the targeted comparison of DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5 results, the number and characteristics of children meeting the newly operationalized DSM-5 case definition for ASD were similar to those meeting the DSM-IV-TR case definition, with DSM-IV-TR case counts exceeding DSM-5 counts by less than 5% and approximately 86% overlap between the two case definitions (kappa = 0.85).

INTERPRETATION

Findings from the ADDM Network, on the basis of 2014 data reported from 11 sites, provide updated population-based estimates of the prevalence of ASD among children aged 8 years in multiple communities in the United States. The overall ASD prevalence estimate of 16.8 per 1,000 children aged 8 years in 2014 is higher than previously reported estimates from the ADDM Network. Because the ADDM sites do not provide a representative sample of the entire United States, the combined prevalence estimates presented in this report cannot be generalized to all children aged 8 years in the United States. Consistent with reports from previous ADDM surveillance years, findings from 2014 were marked by variation in ASD prevalence when stratified by geographic area, sex, and level of intellectual ability. Differences in prevalence estimates between black and white children have diminished in most sites, but remained notable for Hispanic children. For 2014, results from application of the DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5 case definitions were similar, overall and when stratified by sex, race/ethnicity, DSM-IV-TR diagnostic subtype, or level of intellectual ability.

PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION

Beginning with surveillance year 2016, the DSM-5 case definition will serve as the basis for ADDM estimates of ASD prevalence in future surveillance reports. Although the DSM-IV-TR case definition will eventually be phased out, it will be applied in a limited geographic area to offer additional data for comparison. Future analyses will examine trends in the continued use of DSM-IV-TR diagnoses, such as autistic disorder, PDD-NOS, and Asperger disorder in health and education records, documentation of symptoms consistent with DSM-5 terminology, and how these trends might influence estimates of ASD prevalence over time. The latest findings from the ADDM Network provide evidence that the prevalence of ASD is higher than previously reported estimates and continues to vary among certain racial/ethnic groups and communities. With prevalence of ASD ranging from 13.1 to 29.3 per 1,000 children aged 8 years in different communities throughout the United States, the need for behavioral, educational, residential, and occupational services remains high, as does the need for increased research on both genetic and nongenetic risk factors for ASD.

Factors associated with DSM-5 severity level ratings for autism spectrum disorder

The newest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed., DSM-5) introduced substantial changes to the diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder, including new severity level ratings for social communication and restricted and repetitive behavior domains. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of these new severity ratings and to examine their relation to other measures of severity and clinical features. Participants included 248 children with autism spectrum disorder who received diagnostic evaluations at one of six Autism Treatment Network sites. Higher severity ratings in both domains were associated with younger age, lower intelligence quotient, and greater Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition domain-specific symptom severity. Greater restricted and repetitive behavior severity was associated with higher parent-reported stereotyped behaviors. Severity ratings were not associated with emotional or behavioral problems. The new DSM-5 severity ratings in both domains were significantly associated with behavioral observations of autism severity but not with measures of other behavioral or emotional symptoms. However, the strong associations between intelligence quotient and DSM-5 severity ratings in both domains suggest that clinicians may be including cognitive functioning in their overall determination of severity. Further research is needed to examine clinician decision-making and interpretation of these specifiers.

Recovery of stress-impaired social behavior by an antagonist of the CRF binding protein, CRF6-33, in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of male rats

Social stress is recognized to promote the development of neuropsychiatric and mood disorders. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) is an important neuropeptide activated by social stress, and it contributes to neural and behavioral adaptations, as indicated by impaired social interactions and anhedonic effects. Few studies have focused on the role of the CRF binding protein (CRFBP), a component of the CRF system, and its activity in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST), a limbic structure connecting amygdala and hypothalamus. In this study, animals' preference for sweet solutions was examined as an index of stress-induced anhedonic responses in Wistar rats subjected to four brief intermittent episodes of social defeat. Next, social approach was assessed after local infusions of the CRFBP antagonist, CRF fragment 6-33 (CRF_6-33) into the BNST. The experience of brief episodes of social defeat impaired social approach behaviors in male rats. However, intra-BNST CRF_6-33 infusions restored social approach in stressed animals to the levels of non-stressed rats. CRF_6-33 acted selectively on social interaction and did not alter general exploration in nether stressed nor non-stressed rats. These findings suggest that BNST CRFBP is involved in the modulation of anxiety-like responses induced by social stress.

An evaluation of the clinical application of the DSM-5 for the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder

INTRODUCTION

The changes to the diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) were met with much controversy by researchers, clinicians, and families of individuals with ASD. The goal of this paper is to review the literature on the impact of these changes. Areas covered: This paper reviews the major changes to diagnostic criteria from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5. It emphasizes how these changes are hypothesized to impact prevalence rates, as well as trends in characteristics of individuals who would have met previous criteria for ASD but no longer qualify for a diagnosis under DSM-5. Policy issues such as access to services and research considerations are also briefly reviewed. Expert commentary: Researchers have found that the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for ASD may significantly impact which children receive diagnoses, which in turn affects access to services that address impairments characteristic of this disorder. Despite the fact that the DSM-5 has now been in use for four years, fewer recent studies were identified than was expected. Future research should continue to focus on the impact of changes in criteria, as well as on translational scientific advances across disciplines.

Validating the social responsiveness scale for adults with autism

The Social Responsiveness Scale [SRS; Constantino & Gruber, 2005] is a widely-used measure of autism symptoms, but its application for the study of adults with autism spectrum disorders has not been fully evaluated. Using a factor structure consistent with The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed., DSM-V) criteria for autism spectrum disorder [Frazier et al., 2014], the primary purpose of the current study was to establish the validity of the SRS with a sample of adults with autism spectrum disorder (N = 237). Correlational analyses indicated that SRS factors were highly associated with autism symptoms and behavioral measures, indicating concurrent and predictive validity. Multiple regression results demonstrated that SRS factors were differentially related to measures specific to social or behavioral domains, indicating convergent and discriminant validity. Implications for future research are discussed. Autism Res 2017, 10: 1663-1671. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

DNA Damage and Repair in Schizophrenia and Autism: Implications for Cancer Comorbidity and Beyond

Schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are multi-factorial and multi-symptomatic psychiatric disorders, each affecting 0.5%-1% of the population worldwide. Both are characterized by impairments in cognitive functions, emotions and behaviour, and they undermine basic human processes of perception and judgment. Despite decades of extensive research, the aetiologies of schizophrenia and ASD are still poorly understood and remain a significant challenge to clinicians and scientists alike. Adding to this unsatisfactory situation, patients with schizophrenia or ASD often develop a variety of peripheral and systemic disturbances, one prominent example of which is cancer, which shows a direct (but sometimes inverse) comorbidity in people affected with schizophrenia and ASD. Cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of cells, the molecular origin of which derives from mutations of a cell's DNA sequence. To counteract such mutations and repair damaged DNA, cells are equipped with intricate DNA repair pathways. Oxidative stress, oxidative DNA damage, and deficient repair of oxidative DNA lesions repair have been proposed to contribute to the development of schizophrenia and ASD. In this article, we summarize the current evidence of cancer comorbidity in these brain disorders and discuss the putative roles of oxidative stress, DNA damage and DNA repair in the aetiopathology of schizophrenia and ASD.