Complexation of amino acids derivatives in water by calix[4]arene phosphonic acids

Molecular Probes, Chemosensors, and Nanosensors for Optical Detection of Biorelevant Molecules and Ions in Aqueous Media and Biofluids

Synthetic molecular probes, chemosensors, and nanosensors used in combination with innovative assay protocols hold great potential for the development of robust, low-cost, and fast-responding sensors that are applicable in biofluids (urine, blood, and saliva). Particularly, the development of sensors for metabolites, neurotransmitters, drugs, and inorganic ions is highly desirable due to a lack of suitable biosensors. In addition, the monitoring and analysis of metabolic and signaling networks in cells and organisms by optical probes and chemosensors is becoming increasingly important in molecular biology and medicine. Thus, new perspectives for personalized diagnostics, theranostics, and biochemical/medical research will be unlocked when standing limitations of artificial binders and receptors are overcome. In this review, we survey synthetic sensing systems that have promising (future) application potential for the detection of small molecules, cations, and anions in aqueous media and biofluids. Special attention was given to sensing systems that provide a readily measurable optical signal through dynamic covalent chemistry, supramolecular host-guest interactions, or nanoparticles featuring plasmonic effects. This review shall also enable the reader to evaluate the current performance of molecular probes, chemosensors, and nanosensors in terms of sensitivity and selectivity with respect to practical requirement, and thereby inspiring new ideas for the development of further advanced systems.

Molecular Recognition in Water Using Macrocyclic Synthetic Receptors

Molecular recognition in water using macrocyclic synthetic receptors constitutes a vibrant and timely research area of supramolecular chemistry. Pioneering examples on the topic date back to the 1980s. The investigated model systems and the results derived from them are key for furthering our understanding of the remarkable properties exhibited by proteins: high binding affinity, superior binding selectivity, and extreme catalytic performance. Dissecting the different effects contributing to the proteins' properties is severely limited owing to its complex nature. Molecular recognition in water is also involved in other appreciated areas such as self-assembly, drug discovery, and supramolecular catalysis. The development of all these research areas entails a deep understanding of the molecular recognition events occurring in aqueous media. In this review, we cover the past three decades of molecular recognition studies of neutral and charged, polar and nonpolar organic substrates and ions using selected artificial receptors soluble in water. We briefly discuss the intermolecular forces involved in the reversible binding of the substrates, as well as the hydrophobic and Hofmeister effects operating in aqueous solution. We examine, from an interdisciplinary perspective, the design and development of effective water-soluble synthetic receptors based on cyclic, oligo-cyclic, and concave-shaped architectures. We also include selected examples of self-assembled water-soluble synthetic receptors. The catalytic performance of some of the presented receptors is also described. The latter process also deals with molecular recognition and energetic stabilization, but instead of binding ground-state species, the targets become elusive counterparts: transition states and other high-energy intermediates.

The effect of urea moiety in amino acid binding by β-cyclodextrin derivatives: A 1000-fold increase in efficacy comparing to native β-cyclodextrin

Water soluble amphiphilic anion receptors based on urea-substituted β-cyclodextrin were synthesized via a copper(I) mediated azide-alkyne coupling reaction. The synthetic route was designed to minimize the number of operations of cyclodextrins. Stable products were obtained in 90% yield. They were successfully tested as amino acid receptors, showing excellent affinity constants (10³-10⁴M^-1) in a highly competitive environment (pH 8 phosphate-buffered water solution). Isothermal titration calorimetry indicated that complex formation strongly depends on the hydrophobic nature of the guest and that the urea moiety of the receptor is necessary to efficiently bind amino acids.

Molecular tweezers for lysine and arginine - powerful inhibitors of pathologic protein aggregation

Molecular tweezers represent the first class of artificial receptor molecules that have made the way from a supramolecular host to a drug candidate with promising results in animal tests. Due to their unique structure, only lysine and arginine are well complexed with exquisite selectivity by a threading mechanism, which unites electrostatic, hydrophobic and dispersive attraction. However, tweezer design must avoid self-dimerization, self-inclusion and external guest binding. Moderate affinities of molecular tweezers towards sterically well accessible basic amino acids with fast on and off rates protect normal proteins from potential interference with their biological function. However, the early stages of abnormal Aβ, α-synuclein, and TTR assembly are redirected upon tweezer binding towards the generation of amorphous non-toxic materials that can be degraded by the intracellular and extracellular clearance mechanisms. Thus, specific host-guest chemistry between aggregation-prone proteins and lysine/arginine binders rescues cell viability and restores animal health in models of AD, PD, and TTR amyloidosis.

Multifunctional p-phosphonated calixarenes

p-Phosphonic acid calix[n]arenes and their O-alkylated lower rim analogues are remarkably versatile macrocycles, with applications in selective diameter uptake of single walled carbon nano-tubes, as surfactants in stabilising and protecting nano-particles and graphene sheets, as crystal growth modifiers for inorganic systems, in encapsulating molecules of anti-cancer carboplatin, self assembly into nano-arrays, including nano-fibres and molecular capsules, and for binding metal ions including biologically relevant Ca(2+). They are readily accessible via five or six high yielding steps from the parent p-Bu(t) substituted compounds.

Molecular recognition of organic ammonium ions in solution using synthetic receptors

Ammonium ions are ubiquitous in chemistry and molecular biology. Considerable efforts have been undertaken to develop synthetic receptors for their selective molecular recognition. The type of host compounds for organic ammonium ion binding span a wide range from crown ethers to calixarenes to metal complexes. Typical intermolecular interactions are hydrogen bonds, electrostatic and cation-π interactions, hydrophobic interactions or reversible covalent bond formation. In this review we discuss the different classes of synthetic receptors for organic ammonium ion recognition and illustrate the scope and limitations of each class with selected examples from the recent literature. The molecular recognition of ammonium ions in amino acids is included and the enantioselective binding of chiral ammonium ions by synthetic receptors is also covered. In our conclusion we compare the strengths and weaknesses of the different types of ammonium ion receptors which may help to select the best approach for specific applications.

Templating silver nanoparticle growth using phosphonated calixarenes

Very small ( approximately 2 nm) silver nanoparticles can be readily prepared using p-phosphonated calixarenes as templating agents and surfactants, at the same time allowing the use of hydrogen gas as an environmentally benign reductant.

Organization of lower rim O-alkylated p-phosphonic acid calix[4]arenes

Lower rim O-methyl, -n-butyl, and n-octadecyl calix[4]arenes bearing p-phosphonic acid groups on the upper rim have been prepared in high yield, compounds 12-14. Where possible the compounds have been characterized in the solid state using X-ray diffraction, or as the precursor phosphate esters or a cesium salt. The cone conformation ethyl phosphate ester for the octadecyl compound crystallizes in a bi-layer 39.1 A thick which approaches the 40 A of biological membranes. The 1,3-alternate cone conformation of the cesium salt of the O-methyl phosphonic acid has a metal ion coordinated to two methoxy groups, four O-P (two from neighboring calixarenes), and two eta(3)-C(3) moieties from two 1,3-disposed aromatic rings. MALDI-TOF spectra of compounds 12-14 show successive peaks corresponding to 15, 33 and 16 calixarene units, which is consistent with the intra-molecular H-bonding capabilities of the di-protic phosphonic acid groups where the calixarenes are arranged into layers, including bilayers.