Emerging Theranostic Biogenic Silver Nanomaterials for Breast Cancer: A Systematic Review

Enhanced Induction of Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in MCF-7 Breast Cancer and HT-29 Colon Cancer Cell Lines via Low-Dose Biosynthesis of Selenium Nanoparticles Utilizing Lactobacillus casei

As a leading global cause of mortality, cancer continues to pose a significant challenge. The shortcomings of prevalent cancer treatments, such as surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy, necessitate the exploration of alternative therapeutic strategies. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) have emerged as a promising solution, with their synthesis being widely researched due to their potential applications. Among the diverse synthesis methods for SeNPs, the green chemistry approach holds a distinctive position within nanotechnology. This research delves into the anti-proliferative and anticancer properties of green-synthesized SeNPs via the cell-free supernatant (CFS) of Lactobacillus casei (LC-SeNPs), with a specific focus on MCF-7 and HT-29 cancer cell lines. SeNPs were synthesized employing the supernatant of L. casei. The characterization of these green-synthesized SeNPs was performed using TEM, FE-SEM, XRD, FT-IR, UV-vis, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and DLS. The biological impact of LC-SNPs on MCF-7 and HT-29 cancer cells was examined via MTT, flow cytometry, scratch tests, and qRT-PCR. Both FE-SEM and TEM images substantiated the spherical shape of the synthesized nanoparticles. The biosynthesized LC-SNPs reduced the survival of MCF-7 (by 20%) and HT-29 (by 30%) cells at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. Flow cytometry revealed that LC-SNPs were capable of inducing 28% and 23% apoptosis in MCF-7 and HT-29 cells, respectively. In addition, it was found that LC-SNPs treated MCF-7 and HT-29 cells were arrested in the sub-G1 phase. Gene expression analysis indicated that the expression levels of the CASP3, CASP9, and BAX genes were elevated after treating MCF-7 and HT-29 cells with LC-SNPs. Further, SeNPs were observed to inhibit migration and invasion of MCF-7 and HT-29 cancer cells. The SeNPs, produced via L. casei, demonstrated strong anticancer effects on MCF-7 and HT-29 cells, suggesting their potential as biological agents in cancer treatment following additional in vivo experiments.

Unveiling the cytotoxic and anti-proliferative potential of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles mediated by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

Fungal endophytes are a putative source of bioactive metabolites that have found significant applications in nanomedicine due to their metabolic versatility. In the present study, an aqueous extract of the fungal endophyte, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides associated with a medicinal plant Oroxylum indicum, has been used for the fabrication of green silver nanoparticles (CgAgNPs) and further evaluated their cytotoxic and anti-proliferative activity. Bioanalytical techniques including UV-Vis spectral analysis revealed a sharp band at 435 nm and functional molecules from the aqueous extract involved in the synthesis of CgAgNPs were evidenced through FTIR. Further, the crystalline nature of CgAgNPs was determined through XRD analysis and microscopy techniques including AFM, TEM and FESEM demonstrated the spherical shape of CgAgNPs exhibiting a crystalline hexagonal lattice and the size was found to be in the range of 9-29 nm. The significant cytotoxic potential of CgAgNPs was observed against breast cancer cells, MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 with IC50 values of 18.398 ± 0.376 and 38.587 ± 1.828 μg mL-1, respectively. The biochemical study revealed that the treatment of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells with CgAgNPs reduces glucose uptake, suppresses cell proliferation, and enhances LDH release, indicating reduced cell viability and progression. Moreover, our research revealed differential expression of genes associated with apoptosis, cell cycle inhibition and metastasis suppression, evidencing anti-proliferative activity of CgAgNPs. The main objective of the present study is to harness anti-breast cancer activity of novel biogenic nanoparticles synthesized using the aqueous extract of O. indicum associated C. gloeosporioides and study the underlying mechanistic pathway exerted by these mycogenic nanoparticles.

Exploring the Potential of Montmorillonite as an Antiproliferative Nanoagent against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cells

Unlike MCF-7 cells, MDA-MB-231 cells are unresponsive to hormone therapy and often show resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Here, the antiproliferative effect of biocompatible montmorillonite (Mt) nanosheets on MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 human breast cancer cells was evaluated by MTT assay, flow cytometry, and qRT-PCR. The results showed that the Mt IC50 for MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells in a fetal bovine serum (FBS)-free medium was ~50 and ~200 µg/mL, and in 10% FBS medium ~400 and ~2000 µg/mL, respectively. Mt caused apoptosis in both cells by regulating related genes including Cas-3, P53, and P62 in MDA-MB-231 cells and Bcl-2, Cas-8, Cas-9, P53, and P62 in MCF-7 cells. Also, Mt arrested MCF-7 cells in the G0/G1 phase by altering Cyclin-D1 and P21 expression, and caused sub-G1 arrest and necrosis in both cells, possibly through damaging the mitochondria. However, fewer gene expression changes and more sub-G1 arrest and necrosis were observed in MDA-MB-231 cells, confirming the higher vulnerability of MDA-MB-231 cells to Mt. Furthermore, MDA-MB-231 cells appeared to be much more vulnerable to Mt compared to other cell types, including normal lung fibroblast (MRC-5), colon cancer (HT-29), and liver cancer (HepG2) cells. The higher vulnerability of MDA-MB-231 cells to Mt was inferred to be due to their higher proliferation rate. Notably, Mt cytotoxicity was highly dependent on both the Mt concentration and serum level, which favors Mt for the local treatment of MDA-MB-231 cells. Based on these results, Mt can be considered as an antiproliferative nanoagent against MDA-MB-231 cells and may be useful in the development of local nanoparticle-based therapies.

Sustainable fabrication of hybrid silver-copper nanocomposites (Ag-CuO NCs) using Ocimum americanum L. as an effective regime against antibacterial, anticancer, photocatalytic dye degradation and microalgae toxicity

In this study, a sustainable fabrication of hybrid silver-copper oxide nanocomposites (Ag-CuO NCs) was accomplished utilizing Ocimum americanum L. by one pot green chemistry method. The multifarious biological and environmental applications of the green fabricated Ag-CuO NCs were evaluated through their antibacterial, anticancer, dye degradation, and microalgae growth inhibition activities. The morphological features of the surface functionalized hybrid Ag-CuO NCs were confirmed by FE-SEM and HR-TEM techniques. The surface plasmon resonance λ_max peak appeared at 441.56 nm. The average hydrodynamic size distribution of synthesized nanocomposite was 69.80 nm. Zeta potential analysis of Ag-CuO NCs confirmed its remarkable stability at -21.5 mV. XRD and XPS techniques validated the crystalline structure and electron binding affinity of NCs, respectively. The Ag-CuO NCs demonstrated excellent inhibitory activity against Vibrio cholerae (19.93 ± 0.29 mm) at 100 μg/mL. Anticancer efficacy of Ag-CuO NCs was investigated against the A549 lung cancer cell line, and Ag-CuO NCs exhibited outstanding antiproliferative activity with a low IC₅₀ of 2.8 ± 0.05 μg/mL. Furthermore, staining and comet assays substantiated that the Ag-CuO NCs hindered the progression of the A549 cells and induced apoptosis as a result of cell cycle arrest at the G₀/G₁ phase. Concerning the environmental applications, the Ag-CuO NCs displayed efficient photocatalytic activity against eosin yellow degradation up to 80.94% under sunlight irradiation. Microalgae can be used as an early bio-indicator/prediction of environmental contaminants and toxic substances. The treatment of the Ag-CuO NCs on the growth of marine microalgae Tetraselmis suecica demonstrated the dose and time-dependent growth reduction and variations in the chlorophyll content. Therefore, the efficient multifunctional properties of hybrid Ag-CuO NCs could be exploited as a regime against infective diseases and cancer. Further, the findings of our investigation witness the remarkable scope and potency of Ag-CuO NCs for environmental applications.

Nano-biotechnology in tumour and cancerous disease: A perspective review

In recent years, drug manufacturers and researchers have begun to consider the nanobiotechnology approach to improve the drug delivery system for tumour and cancer diseases. In this article, we review current strategies to improve tumour and cancer drug delivery, which mainly focuses on sustaining biocompatibility, biodistribution, and active targeting. The conventional therapy using cornerstone drugs such as fludarabine, cisplatin etoposide, and paclitaxel has its own challenges especially not being able to discriminate between tumour versus normal cells which eventually led to toxicity and side effects in the patients. In contrast to the conventional approach, nanoparticle-based drug delivery provides target-specific delivery and controlled release of the drug, which provides a better therapeutic window for treatment options by focusing on the eradication of diseased cells via active targeting and sparing normal cells via passive targeting. Additionally, treatment of tumours associated with the brain is hampered by the impermeability of the blood-brain barriers to the drugs, which eventually led to poor survival in the patients. Nanoparticle-based therapy offers superior delivery of drugs to the target by breaching the blood-brain barriers. Herein, we provide an overview of the properties of nanoparticles that are crucial for nanotechnology applications. We address the potential future applications of nanobiotechnology targeting specific or desired areas. In particular, the use of nanomaterials, biostructures, and drug delivery methods for the targeted treatment of tumours and cancer are explored.

Biologically Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles and Their Diverse Applications

Nanotechnology has become the most effective and rapidly developing field in the area of material science, and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are of leading interest because of their smaller size, larger surface area, and multiple applications. The use of plant sources as reducing agents in the fabrication of silver nanoparticles is most attractive due to the cheaper and less time-consuming process for synthesis. Furthermore, the tremendous attention of AgNPs in scientific fields is due to their multiple biomedical applications such as antibacterial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities, and they could be used for clean environment applications. In this review, we briefly describe the types of nanoparticle syntheses and various applications of AgNPs, including antibacterial, anticancer, and larvicidal applications and photocatalytic dye degradation. It will be helpful to the extent of a better understanding of the studies of biological synthesis of AgNPs and their multiple uses.

Biogenic silver/silver chloride nanoparticles inhibit human cancer cells proliferation in vitro and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells growth in vivo

Silver/silver chloride nanoparticles (Ag/AgCl-NPs) were synthesized for the first time from the herbal Geodorum densiflorum rhizome extracts and characterized by different techniques. The surface plasmon resonance peak at 455 nm was observed in the UV–Visible spectrum, the average particle size of 25 nm was determined by SEM, XRD reflection peaks (28.00°, 32.42°, 38.28°, 46.38°, 54.94°, 57.60°, 64.64°, and 67.48°) indicated the presence of Ag-NPs and AgCl-NPs, heat stability was confirmed by TGA and FTIR analysis indicated the presence of alcohol/phenol, alkanes, primary amines, nitro compounds, alkyl chloride functional groups. The synthesized Ag/AgCl-NPs, previously synthesized Kaempferia rotunda and Zizyphus mauritiana mediated Ag/AgCl-NPs separately inhibited the proliferation of BxPC-3 cells with the IC₅₀ values of 7.8, 17.1, and 20.1 µg/ml, respectively. In the case of MCF-7 cells, the IC₅₀ values of G. densiflorum- Ag/AgCl-NPs and K. rotunda-Ag/AgCl-NPs were 21.5 and 23.5 µg/ml, respectively. Whereas the IC₅₀ of G. densiflorum-Ag/AgCl-NPs was 28.0 µg/ml against glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). Induction of apoptosis in GSCs, BxPC-3 and MCF-7 cells was noted followed by NPs treatment. In GSCs, the expression level of NFκB, TNFα, p21, and TLR9 genes were upregulated after treatment with G. densiflorum-Ag/AgCl-NPs while in the MCF-7 cells, the expression of p53, FAS, Caspase-8 and -9, NFκB, MAPK, JNK and p21 genes were increased. G. densiflorum-Ag/AgCl-NPs inhibited 60% and 95% of EAC cells growth at the doses of 2 and 4 mg/Kg/day after intraperitoneal treatment with five consequent days, respectively. A remarkable improvement of hematological parameters with the decreased average tumor weight and increase of 75% life span of G. densiflorum-Ag/AgCl-NPs treated mice were observed. Altogether, this study reported for the first time in vitro anticancer activity of biogenic G. densiflorum-Ag/AgCl-NPs against GSC cells along with MCF-7 and BxPC-3 cells and in vivo anticancer properties against EAC cells.

Role of Nanobiotechnology Towards Agri-Food System

The major challenge of modern agriculture is to satisfy actual and future global food demands efficiently. This great challenge requires combined efforts to preserve natural resources to support intensive agriculture while limiting detrimental impacts on the environment. One of these efforts is using nanobiotechnology. Nanobiotechnology is the application of nanotechnology in biological science. Nanotechnology is the science of manipulating materials at the nanoscale (1 nm = 10ˉ⁹ m). This review summarizes the potential of nanobiotechnology for its importance in increasing yield in agriculture and providing consumers with quality and contamination-free food. In the agriculture sector, nanobiotechnology is necessarily used as fertilizers (nanofertilizers) for crop yield improvement, pesticides (nanopesticides) for crop protection, and nanobiosensors for the detection of crop pathogens, soil conditions, and vegetation conditions, Similarly, intelligent food packaging, and detection of pathogens, adulterants, and toxins in food are its importance in the food sector.

Breast Cancer Stem-Like Cells in Drug Resistance: A Review of Mechanisms and Novel Therapeutic Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance

Breast cancer is the most frequent type of malignancy in women worldwide, and drug resistance to the available systemic therapies remains a major challenge. At the molecular level, breast cancer is heterogeneous, where the cancer-initiating stem-like cells (bCSCs) comprise a small yet distinct population of cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME) that can differentiate into cells of multiple lineages, displaying varying degrees of cellular differentiation, enhanced metastatic potential, invasiveness, and resistance to radio- and chemotherapy. Based on the expression of estrogen and progesterone hormone receptors, expression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), and/or BRCA mutations, the breast cancer molecular subtypes are identified as TNBC, HER2 enriched, luminal A, and luminal B. Management of breast cancer primarily involves resection of the tumor, followed by radiotherapy, and systemic therapies including endocrine therapies for hormone-responsive breast cancers; HER2-targeted therapy for HER2-enriched breast cancers; chemotherapy and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors for TNBC, and the recent development of immunotherapy. However, the complex crosstalk between the malignant cells and stromal cells in the breast TME, rewiring of the many different signaling networks, and bCSC-mediated processes, all contribute to overall drug resistance in breast cancer. However, strategically targeting bCSCs to reverse chemoresistance and increase drug sensitivity is an underexplored stream in breast cancer research. The recent identification of dysregulated miRNAs/ncRNAs/mRNAs signatures in bCSCs and their crosstalk with many cellular signaling pathways has uncovered promising molecular leads to be used as potential therapeutic targets in drug-resistant situations. Moreover, therapies that can induce alternate forms of regulated cell death including ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and immunotherapy; drugs targeting bCSC metabolism; and nanoparticle therapy are the upcoming approaches to target the bCSCs overcome drug resistance. Thus, individualizing treatment strategies will eliminate the minimal residual disease, resulting in better pathological and complete response in drug-resistant scenarios. This review summarizes basic understanding of breast cancer subtypes, concept of bCSCs, molecular basis of drug resistance, dysregulated miRNAs/ncRNAs patterns in bCSCs, and future perspective of developing anticancer therapeutics to address breast cancer drug resistance.

Hypnea musciformis-mediated Ag/AgCl-NPs inhibit pathogenic bacteria, HCT-116 and MCF-7 cells' growth in vitro and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells in vivo in mice

In the present study, Ag/AgCl‐NPs were biosynthesised using Hypnea musciformis seaweed extract; NPs synthesis was confirmed by a change of colour and observation of a razor‐sharp peak at 424 nm by UV–visible spectroscopy. Synthesised nanoparticles were characterised by transmission electron microscopy, energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, X‐ray powder diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Bacterial cell growth inhibition proves that the Ag/AgCl‐NPs have strong antibacterial activity and cell morphological alteration was observed in treated bacterial cells using propidium iodide (PI). Ag/AgCl‐NPs inhibited Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells, colorectal cancer (HCT‐116) and breast cancer (MCF‐7) cell line in vitro with the IC₅₀ values of 40.45, 24.08 and 36.95 μg/ml, respectively. Initiation of apoptosis in HCT‐116 and MCF‐7 cells was confirmed using PI, FITC‐annexin V and Hoechst 33342 dye. No reaction oxygen species generation was observed in both treated and untreated cell lines. A significant increase of ATG‐5 gene expression indicates the possibility of autophagy cell death besides apoptosis in MCF‐7 cells. The initiation of apoptosis in EAC cells was confirmed by observing caspase‐3 protein expression. Ag/AgCl‐NPs inhibited 22.83% and 51% of the EAC cell growth in vivo in mice when administered 1.5 and 3.0 mg/kg/day (i.p.), respectively, for 5 consequent days.

The Brassica Napus Extract (BNE)-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles as an Early Necroptosis and Late Apoptosis Inducer in Human MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

Loading of the Brassica napus extract (BNE) on PLGA nanoparticle (BNE-PNP) and study its necroptotic activity in human MCF7-breast cancer cells. Double emulsion solvent evaporation methods were used for synthesis of BNE-PNP and DLS, SEM, and surface Zeta-potential analysis were applied for defining the physicochemical properties of BNE-PNP. The cytotoxic impact of BNE-PNP nanoparticles was analyzed by MTT assay and expression of apoptotic (P53 and Cas-3) and necrotic (TNF-α) gene markers were measured by qPCR to evaluate the BNE-PNP-induced cell death type. The stable (-36.07 mV) BNE-PNP were synthesized at 71.07 nm dimension. They significantly decrease the count of metabolically active MCF7 cells (IC₅₀: 170.94 µg/ml after 48 h). The BNE-PNP induced an early programmed necrotic (necroptosis) and late apoptotic death on the MCF7 cancer cells by up-regulating all the P53/TNF-α and Cas-3 gene expression, respectively. The BNE-PNP dose-dependently induced an early cell-selective necroptotic death. Since the necroptotic death is known as a biocompatible cellular death induction, the BNE-PNP have the potential to be used as a safe efficient anticancer compound.

Near-infrared PbS quantum dots functionalized with affibodies and ZnPP for targeted imaging and therapeutic applications

We report a new theranostic device based on lead sulfide quantum dots (PbS QDs) with optical emission in the near infrared wavelength range decorated with affibodies (small 6.5 kDa protein-based antibody replacements) specific to the cancer biomarker human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), and zinc(II) protoporphyrin IX (ZnPP) to combine imaging, targeting and therapy within one nanostructure. Colloidal PbS QDs were synthesized in aqueous solution with a nanocrystal diameter of ∼5 nm and photoluminescence emission in the near infrared wavelength range. The ZHER2:432 affibody, mutated through the introduction of two cysteine residues at the C-terminus (Afb2C), was used as capping ligand to form Afb2C-PbS QDs that have a high binding affinity for HER2, which is overexpressed in several types of cancer including breast cancer. Afb2C-PbS QDs were further modified by conjugation with ZnPP, which acts as an anticancer agent. The biological activity of these QDs was tested against SKBR3 (HER2-positive) and MDA-MB-231 (HER2-normal) breast cancer cells, with results showing that ZnPP-Afb2C-functionalized PbS QDs were successfully targeted to the HER2-overexpressing cancer cells and induced cell apoptosis thanks to the conjugation with ZnPP. These results expand the use of the QD nanoplatform with the formulation of novel nanomaterials for targeted delivery and combined imaging and therapy via direct surface-protein interaction.

Prioritising breast cancer theranostics: A current medical longing in oncology

The Theranostics approach has full potential to completely transform the contemporary medicine system to a patient-centric approach, as it is emerging in quite efficient manner, over the past few years. The primary impetus of this review is to analyse the patent growth in the domain of breast cancer theranostics. This wholesome analysis provides an insight into the current technological and R & D advancement over the years, in breast cancer theranostics. Thus, guide the end-users in getting the conclusion for policymaking and other public recommendations. This patent assessment also foretells about the future trends to carry out further achievements. Due to their easy availability, information richness, & versatility, patent's role in R&D policy has been emphasized by stake holders of innovation including scientists time to time. Graphical Abstract: The figure illustrates the applied technologies used for breast cancer theranostics by top three forward cited patents (A) The oligonucleotides with specific sequences (comprised of at least one of DNA, RNA, PNA. LNA, UNA or combination)¹ are capable of binding a targeted tumor protein (PARP1, HISTIHIB, HISTIHID, NCL, FBL, SFPQ, RPL12, ACTB, HIST1H4A, SSBP1, NONO, H2AFJ, and DDX21, forming a tumor protein complex or subunit or their fragments and might block the tumoral activity. These are also capable of binding to Ramos cells (Derived from Human Burkitt's lymphoma that is negative for Epstein Barr virus). These can also bind cell surface nucleolin and may inhibit cell proliferation. These molecules with detection agent detect the presence or level of disease specific protein. (B) These aptamers with chemical functionalization can be conjugated to an amine linker or high molecular weight non-immunogenic compound or a drug or cytotoxic moiety or labelled with fluorescent agent. These chemically modified aptamers can also bind disease - specific biomarkers e.g., circulating biomarkers, micro- vesicle surface antigens or their functional fragments and can be subsequently used for early diagnosis, prognosis or therapeutic purposes. ¹PNA: Peptide Nucleic Acid. LNA: Locked Nucleic Acid. UNA: Unlocked Nucleic Acid.

Recent Advances in Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches for Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review

A silent monster, breast cancer, is a challenging medical task for researchers. Breast cancer is a leading cause of death in women with respect to other cancers. A case of breast cancer is diagnosed among women every 19 seconds, and every 74 seconds, a woman dies of breast cancer somewhere in the world. Several risk factors, such as genetic and environmental factors, favor breast cancer development. This review tends to provide deep insights regarding the genetics of breast cancer along with multiple diagnostic and therapeutic approaches as problem-solving negotiators to prevent the progression of breast cancer. This assembled data mainly aims to discuss omics-based approaches to provide enthralling diagnostic biomarkers and emerging novel therapies to combat breast cancer. This review article intends to pave a new path for the discovery of effective treatment options.

Biogenesis of copper nanoparticles (Cu-NPs) using leaf extract of Allium noeanum, antioxidant and in-vitro cytotoxicity

In this research, we formulated new chemotherapeutic copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) containing Allium noeanum Reut. ex Regel leaf for treating human endometrial cancer. For investigating the antioxidant activitiy, the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test was used. MTT test was used on normal (Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)) and human endometrial cancer (Ishikawa, HEC-1-A, HEC-1-B, and KLE) cell lines for comparing the anti-human endometrial cancer properties of Cu(NO₃)₂, A. noeanum leaf aqueous extract, and copper nanoparticles. Copper nanoparticles had high cell death and anti-human endometrial cancer effects against Ishikawa, HEC-1-A, HEC-1-B, and KLE cell lines. The IC50 of A. noeanum leaf aqueous extract and copper nanoparticles against HEC-1-B cell line were 548 and 331 µg/mL, respectively; against HEC-1-A cell line were 583 and 356 µg/mL, respectively; against KLE cell line were 609 and 411 µg/mL, respectively; and against Ishikawa cell line were 560 and 357 µg/mL, respectively. Among the above cell lines, the best result of anti-human endometrial cancer properties of copper nanoparticles was gained in the cell line of HEC-1-B. This study indicated excellent anti-human endometrial cancer potentials of copper nanoparticles containing A. noeanum in the in vitro condition.

Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Carica papaya Leaf Extract (AgNPs-PLE) Causes Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis in Human Prostate (DU145) Cancer Cells

Treatment of cancer has been limited by the poor efficacy and toxicity profiles of available drugs. There is a growing demand to develop alternative approaches to combat cancer such as use of nano-formulation-based drugs. Here, we report biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with papaya leaf extract (PLE) and its anti-cancer properties against different human cancer cells. Purified nanoparticles were characterized by standard techniques, such as TEM, STM, SEM, EDS, XRD, and FTIR. Furthermore, cytotoxic activity of AgNPs-PLE was carried out against different human cancer cells and non-tumorigenic human keratinocytes cells. AgNPs-PLE when compared with AgNPs-citric acid or PLE showed better efficacy against cancer cells and was also relatively less toxic to normal cells. Treatment of DU145 cells with AgNPs-PLE (0.5-5.0 μg/ml) for 24-48 h lowered total cell number by 24-36% (P < 0.05). Inhibition of cell growth was linked with arrest of cell cycle at G2/M phase at 24 h, while G1 and G2/M phase arrests at 48 h. ROS production was observed at earlier time points in presence of AgNPs-PLE, suggesting its role behind apoptosis in DU145 cells. Induction of apoptosis (57%) was revealed by AO/EB staining in DU145 cells along with induction of Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP proteins. G1-S phase cell cycle check point marker, cyclin D1 was down-regulated along with an increase in cip1/p21 and kip1/p27 tumor suppressor proteins by AgNPs-PLE. These findings suggest the anti-cancer properties of AgNPs-PLE.

The Breast Cancer Stem Cells Traits and Drug Resistance

Drug resistance is a major challenge in breast cancer (BC) treatment at present. Accumulating studies indicate that breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are responsible for the BC drugs resistance, causing relapse and metastasis in BC patients. Thus, BCSCs elimination could reverse drug resistance and improve drug efficacy to benefit BC patients. Consequently, mastering the knowledge on the proliferation, resistance mechanisms, and separation of BCSCs in BC therapy is extremely helpful for BCSCs-targeted therapeutic strategies. Herein, we summarize the principal BCSCs surface markers and signaling pathways, and list the BCSCs-related drug resistance mechanisms in chemotherapy (CT), endocrine therapy (ET), and targeted therapy (TT), and display therapeutic strategies for targeting BCSCs to reverse drug resistance in BC. Even more importantly, more attention should be paid to studies on BCSC-targeted strategies to overcome the drug resistant dilemma of clinical therapies in the future.

Biogenic silver/silver chloride nanoparticles inhibit human glioblastoma stem cells growth in vitro and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cell growth in vivo

The importance of biogenic silver/silver chloride nanoparticles has become increasing day by day. In the present study, silver/silver chloride nanoparticles (Ag/AgCl‐NPs) were synthesized from Kaempferia rotunda tuberous rhizome extract to evaluate the antiproliferative activity against human glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) in vitro and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells in vivo in mice. Synthesis of nanoparticles was confirmed by colour change and UV‐visible spectrum and characterized by TEM, XRD, TGA, AFM and FTIR. K rotunda and recently synthesized Zizyphus mauritiana fruit extract‐mediated Ag/AgCl‐NPs inhibited 77.2% and 71% of GSCs growth at 32 µg/mL concentration with the IC₅₀ values of 6.8 and 10.4 µg/mL, respectively. Cell morphological studies and caspase‐3 immunofluorescence assay revealed that both biogenic nanoparticles induced apoptosis in GSCs. Expression levels of several genes were checked by real‐time PCR after treatment with K rotunda tuberous rhizome‐mediated Ag/AgCl‐NPs. PARP, EGFR, NOTCH2 and STAT3 gene expression were decreased with the increase of NFκB, TLR9, IL1, TNFα, IKK and p21 gene that would be the cause of induction of apoptosis in GSCs. The cell cycle arrest at G₂/M phase was confirmed by flow cytometric assay. Both nanoparticles were injected intraperitoneally to rapidly growing EAC cells for 5 consecutive days. Approximately, 32.3% and 55% EAC cells growth were inhibited by K rotunda tuberous rhizome‐mediated Ag/AgCl‐NPs at 6 and 12 mg/kg/day doses, respectively while only 20% cell growth inhibition was monitored at 12 mg/kg/day dose of Z mauritiana‐mediated Ag/AgCl‐NPs. From the above results, it can be concluded that presently synthesized nanoparticles would be a potent anticancer agent.

Zizyphus mauritiana Fruit Extract-Mediated Synthesized Silver/Silver Chloride Nanoparticles Retain Antimicrobial Activity and Induce Apoptosis in MCF-7 Cells through the Fas Pathway

Recently, green synthesis of silver/silver chloride nanoparticles (Ag/AgCl-NPs) has gained a lot of interest because of the usage of natural resources, rapidness, eco-friendliness, and benignancy. Several researchers reported that silver-based biogenic NPs have both antimicrobial and anticancer properties. In the present study, Ag/AgCl-NPs were synthesized from Zizyphus mauritiana fruit extract, and their antibacterial, antifungal, and antiproliferative mechanisms against human MCF-7 cell lines were evaluated. Synthesis of Ag/AgCl-NPs from the Z. mauritiana fruit extract was confirmed by the changes of color and a peak of the UV-visible spectrum at 428 nm. The nanoparticles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray, X-ray powder diffraction, thermal gravimetric analysis, atomic force microscope, and Fourier transform infrared. Antibacterial activity was checked against four pathogenic bacteria and two fungi. Cytotoxicity was checked against human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and mice Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells by MTS assay and clonogenicity assay. Cell morphology of the control and nanoparticle-treated MCF-7 cells were checked by Hoechst 33342, YF488-Annexin V, and caspase-3 substrates. The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was studied by using 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein-diacetate staining. Real-time polymerase chain reaction was used for gene expression. Synthesized nanoparticles were heat stable cubic crystals with an average size of 16 nm that contain silver and chlorine with various functional groups. The synthesized Ag/AgCl-NPs inhibited the growth of three pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Shigella boydii, and Escherichia coli) and two fungi (Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma spp.). Ag/AgCl-NPs inhibited the growth of MCF-7 and EAC cells with the IC₅₀ values of 28 and 84 μg/mL, respectively. No colony was formed in MCF-7 cells in the presence of these nanoparticles as compared with control. Ag/AgCl-NPs induced apoptosis and generated ROS in MCF-7 cells. The expression level of FAS, FADD, and caspase-8 genes increased several folds with the decrease of PARP gene expression. These results demonstrated that the anti-proliferation activity of Ag/AgCl-NPs against MCF-7 cells resulted through ROS generation and induction of apoptosis through the Fas-mediated pathway.

Recent findings on the role of fungal products in the treatment of cancer

In modern medicine, natural products have aided humans against their battles with cancer. Among these products, microorganisms, medicinal herbs and marine organisms are considered to be of great benefit. In recent decades, more than 30 fungal immunity proteins have been identified and proved to be extractable from a wide range of fungi, including mushrooms. Although chemotherapy is used to overcome cancer cells, the side effects of this method are of great concern in clinical practice. Fungal products and their derivatives constitute more than 50% of the clinical drugs currently being used globally. Approximately 60% of the clinically approved drugs for cancer treatment have natural roots. Anti-tumor immunotherapy is prospective with a rapidly growing market worldwide due to its high efficiency, immunity, and profit. Polysaccharide extracts from natural sources are being used in clinical and therapeutic trials on cancer patients. This review aims to present the latest findings in cancer treatment through isolated and extraction of fungal derivatives and other natural biomaterials.

Emerging Antineoplastic Biogenic Gold Nanomaterials for Breast Cancer Therapeutics: A Systematic Review

Breast cancer remains as a concerning global health issue, being the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women in the United States (US) in 2019. Therefore, there is an urgent and substantial need to explore novel strategies to combat breast cancer. A potential solution may come from the use of cancer nanotechnology, an innovative field of study which investigates the potential of nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis, therapy, and theranostic applications. Consequently, the theranostic functionality of cancer nanotechnology has been gaining much attention between scientists during the past few years and is growing exponentially. The use of biosynthesized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has been explored as an efficient mechanism for the treatment of breast cancer. The present study supposed a global systematic review to evaluate the effectiveness of biogenic AuNPs for the treatment of breast cancer and their anticancer molecular mechanisms through in vitro studies. Online electronic databases, including Cochrane, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, ProQuest, and Embase, were searched for the articles published up to July 16, 2019. Our findings revealed that plant-mediated synthesis was the most common approach for the generation of AuNPs. Most of the studies reported spherical or nearly spherical-shaped AuNPs with a mean diameter less than 100 nm in size. A significantly larger cytotoxicity was observed when the biogenic AuNPs were tested towards breast cancer cells compared to healthy cells. Moreover, biogenic AuNPs demonstrated significant synergistic activity in combination with other anticancer drugs through in vitro studies. Although we provided strong and comprehensive preliminary in vitro data, further in vivo investigations are required to show the reliability and efficacy of these NPs in animal models.

Silver ion bioreduction in nanoparticles using Artemisia annua L. extract: characterization and application as antibacterial agents

The biological synthesis of metal nanoparticles using plant extracts with defined size and morphology is a simple, nontoxic and environmentally friendly method. The present study focused on the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) by Artemisia annua L. extract as reducing and stabilising agent. The Ag NPs function, as antibacterial agents, is with that they are further used in human therapy. The effects of pH and temperature on the synthesis of NPs were characterized by UV-absorption spectroscopy and shown by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band at 410 nm. NPs' size and morphology were measured by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). TEM images showed that Ag NPs were in a nano-sized range (20-90 nm) and had spherical shape. Our findings demonstrated that lower concentration (100 µg mL-1) of the biogenic Ag NPs exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram-negative Escherichia coli BW 25113 and Gram-positive Enterococcus hirae ATCC 9790.

Effect of NaOH concentration on antibacterial activities of Cu nanoparticles and the antibacterial mechanism

A series of Cu nanoparticles (NPs) have been prepared by a facile hydrothermal method at 180 °C using different concentrations of NaOH solutions and characterized by XRD, SEM, TEM and FT-IR spectra. Their antibacterial activities were assessed by means of Gram-positive S. aureus and Gram-negative E. coli bacteria, where various dosages (3, 5, 7, 10 mg) of the antibacterial agents were applied, and compared with that of the commercial CuSO₄ salt. The antibacterial mechanism was explored based on series of control experiments. The results show that the NaOH concentration affects the crystallinity, crystal size and surface hydroxyl content of the Cu NPs, which significantly influence the antibacterial activities. Compared to the commercial CuSO₄ salt, the four Cu samples prepared using no <4 mol L^-1 of NaOH display excellent antibacterial activities with low concentrations of copper leachates, which is great beneficial to the practical applications. The experimental results support that the highly reactive and soluble copper species in the antibacterial system of the Cu NPs is a Cu (II)-peptide complex, but not free Cu²⁺ ions.

Nanomedicine in treatment of breast cancer - A challenge to conventional therapy

Amongst the various types of cancer, breast cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and known as the leading cause of death among women globally. The extensive interdisciplinary investigation in nanotechnology and cancer biomedical research has been evolved over the years for its effective treatment. However, the advent of chemotherapeutic resistance in breast cancer is one of the major confront researchers are facing in achieving successful chemotherapy. Research in the area of cancer nanotechnology over the years have now been revolutionized through the development of smart polymers, lipids, inorganic materials and eventually their surface-engineering with targeting ligands. Moreover, nanotechnology further extended and brings in the notice the new theranostic approach which combining the therapy and imaging simultaneously. Currently, research is being envisaged in the area of novel nano-pharmaceutical design viz. liposome, nanotubes, polymer lipid hybrid system, which focuses to make the chemotherapy curative and long-lasting. In this review, we aimed to discuss the recent advancement of different surface-engineered/targeted nanomedicines that improved the drug efficacy in breast cancer.

A Systematic Review of the Genotoxicity and Antigenotoxicity of Biologically Synthesized Metallic Nanomaterials: Are Green Nanoparticles Safe Enough for Clinical Marketing?

Background and objectives: Although studies have elucidated the significant biomedical potential of biogenic metallic nanoparticles (MNPs), it is very important to explore the hazards associated with the use of biogenic MNPs. Evidence indicates that genetic toxicity causes mutation, carcinogenesis, and cell death. Materials and Methods: Therefore, we systematically review original studies that investigated the genotoxic effect of biologically synthesized MNPs via in vitro and in vivo models. Articles were systematically collected by screening the literature published online in the following databases; Cochrane, Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, ProQuest, and EBSCO. Results: Most of the studies were carried out on the MCF-7 cancer cell line and phytosynthesis was the general approach to MNP preparation in all studies. Fungi were the second most predominant resource applied for MNP synthesis. A total of 80.57% of the studies synthesized biogenic MNPs with sizes below 50 nm. The genotoxicity of Ag, Au, ZnO, TiO₂, Se, Cu, Pt, Zn, Ag-Au, CdS, Fe₃O₄, Tb₂O₃, and Si-Ag NPs was evaluated. AgNPs, prepared in 68.79% of studies, and AuNPs, prepared in 12.76%, were the two most predominant biogenic MNPs synthesized and evaluated in the included articles. Conclusions: Although several studies reported the antigenotoxic influence of biogenic MNPs, most of them reported biogenic MNP genotoxicity at specific concentrations and with a dose or time dependence. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to systematically evaluate the genotoxicity of biologically synthesized MNPs and provide a valuable summary of genotoxicity data. In conclusion, our study implied that the genotoxicity of biologically synthesized MNPs varies case-by-case and highly dependent on the synthesis parameters, biological source, applied assay, etc. The gathered data are required for the translation of these nanoproducts from research laboratories to the clinical market.