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Xiao LY, Fraser TC, Nielsen RKL, Newall PWS. Loot boxes, gambling-related risk factors, and mental health in Mainland China: A large-scale survey. Addict Behav 2024; 148:107860. [PMID: 37729858 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Loot boxes can be bought with real-world money to obtain random content inside video games. Loot boxes are viewed by many as gambling-like and are prevalently implemented globally. Previous Western and international studies have consistently found loot box spending to be positively correlated with problem gambling. Previous Western studies presented mixed results as to the correlations between loot box purchasing and gambling-related risk factors, mental wellbeing, and psychological distress. A large-scale survey of adult video game players from the People's Republic of China (PRC) (N = 2601) was conducted through Tencent Survey. The positive correlations between loot box spending and problem gambling, and between loot box spending and problem videogaming, were successfully replicated. However, other potential risk factors (i.e., impulsivity/impulsiveness; binary past-year gambling participation status; and sensation-seeking tendencies) either did not positively correlate with loot box spending or only did so weakly. Contrary to expectations, high impulsivity was negatively associated with loot box engagement. The Risky Loot Box Index (RLI) most strongly positively correlated with, and was the best predictor in multiple linear regression models for, loot box spending. The RLI may be effective at measuring loot box harms cross-culturally. A surprising weak positive correlation was found between loot box engagement and PRC players' mental wellbeing, and high psychological distress unexpectedly negatively predicted loot box purchasing. Although gambling-like, the risk and protective factors of loot boxes are seemingly different, meaning they should rightfully be treated as novel products. Cross-cultural research can contribute to a better understanding of loot box harms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Y Xiao
- Center for Digital Play, IT University of Copenhagen, København, Denmark; School of Law, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK; Department of Computer Science, University of York, Heslington, UK; The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, London, UK.
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Flack M, Tseng CH, Stevens M, Caudwell KM. The needle in the haystack: Is the dimensionality of the PGSI a prized object, or something to discard? A response to Tabri & Wohl's commentary 'There is (still) a global factor that underlies the PGSI.'. Addict Behav 2023; 141:107639. [PMID: 36773577 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mal Flack
- Researchers in Behavioural Addictions, Alcohol, and Drugs (BAAD), Faculty of Health, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia.
| | - Chen Hsiang Tseng
- Researchers in Behavioural Addictions, Alcohol, and Drugs (BAAD), Faculty of Health, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia
| | - Matthew Stevens
- STRS Consultants, Darwin, Northern Territory 0800, Australia
| | - Kim M Caudwell
- Researchers in Behavioural Addictions, Alcohol, and Drugs (BAAD), Faculty of Health, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia
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Syvertsen A, Kristensen JH, Browne M, Li E, Pallesen S. Validation of the 7-Item Domain-General Gambling Harm Scale (DGHS-7). Addict Behav Rep 2023; 17:100499. [PMID: 37347046 PMCID: PMC10279776 DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2023.100499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Gambling can cause negative consequences affecting finances, work/study, physical and mental health, relationships, law abidingness, and the community. Although existing measures enable investigations of gambling harms, there is still a need for a brief measure covering the full range of gambling related harms. Methods We validated a 7-item domain-general harm scale (DGHS-7) using data from a cross-sectional survey of United Kingdom residents reporting gambling within the last 12 months (n = 2558, 62.4% women, mean age 40.1 years (SD = 12.5)). The DGHS-7 was investigated in terms of factor structure, measurement invariance, and convergent validity with a comprehensive 72-item checklist of gambling harm, the Short Gambling Harms Screen (SGHS), and the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). Discriminative validity was checked against the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI). Internal consistency was also calculated. Results Confirmatory factor analysis supported a one-factor solution (χ2 = 136.991, df = 14, χ2/df = 9.785, p <.001, CFI = 0.999, RMSEA = 0.059, 90% CI [0.050, 0.068]). Measurement invariance was supported for gender and binary categorization of age and income (ΔCFI = 0.001). The DGHS-7 correlated strongly with the 72-item checklist (rs = 0.824), the SGHS (rs = 0.793), the PGSI (rs = 0.768), and moderately with the PWI (rs = -0.303). Cronbach's alpha = 0.91 and ordinal alpha = 0.96 indicated good internal consistency. Conclusions Psychometric support was found for a brief measure covering all recognized domains of gambling harm. The DGHS-7 is useful for researchers needing a generic and short measure for epidemiological and other studies calling for short scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Syvertsen
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Norway
- Norwegian Competence Center for Gambling and Gaming Research, University of Bergen, Norway
| | - Joakim H. Kristensen
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Norway
- Norwegian Competence Center for Gambling and Gaming Research, University of Bergen, Norway
| | | | - En Li
- Central Queensland University, Australia
| | - Ståle Pallesen
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Norway
- Norwegian Competence Center for Gambling and Gaming Research, University of Bergen, Norway
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Hsiang Tseng C, Flack M, Caudwell KM, Stevens M. Separating problem gambling behaviors and negative consequences: Examining the factor structure of the PGSI. Addict Behav 2023; 136:107496. [PMID: 36174423 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
There is some uncertainty on how to best conceptualise and measure problem gambling and debate as to whether it is helpful to differentiate the behavioral features of problematic gambling from the negative consequences of gambling. The current study explores this issue by examining the factor structure of a commonly-used problem gambling measure, the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), as administered to respondents in the 2018 Northern Territory Gambling Prevalence and Wellbeing Survey (n = 3,740 gamblers). Confirmatory factor analyses revealed a two-factor solution offered significant improvement in fit over the one-factor model. Further, the two factors explained unique variance in the number of gambling-related harms experienced by respondents. Although the two factors were highly correlated, the current findings indicate problem gambling behaviors are related to the negative consequences of gambling, but these are not necessarily synonymous. This suggests isolating behavioral and consequential elements of gambling may have utility in public health interventions for gambling that, while concerning, falls below a clinically-significant threshold. Similarly, clinically-oriented research may benefit by measuring the behavioral features, as these components are important targets for individual-level interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Hsiang Tseng
- College of Health and Human Sciences, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia
| | - Mal Flack
- Researchers in Behavioural Addictions, Alcohol, and Drugs (BAAD), College of Health and Human Sciences, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia.
| | - Kim M Caudwell
- Researchers in Behavioural Addictions, Alcohol, and Drugs (BAAD), College of Health and Human Sciences, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia.
| | - Matthew Stevens
- STRS Consultants, Darwin, Northern Territory 0800, Australia
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Rockloff M, Browne M, Russell AMT, Hing N, Armstrong T, Greer N. Legacy gambling harms: What are they and how long do they last? J Behav Addict 2022; 11:1002-1011. [PMID: 36227714 PMCID: PMC9881663 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2022.00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Legacy gambling harms are negative consequences of gambling that extend past periods of low risk, moderate risk and problem gambling. Gambling harm is typically measured within a 12-month timeframe and is often restricted to examining harm amongst active gamblers. The present research aimed to explore whether people experienced gambling harms 12 months or more after the resolution of at-risk or problem gambling, and how long these legacy harms lasted. METHODS An online survey was conducted in New Zealand with past and current gamblers and concerned significant others (CSOs) of gamblers, N = 1,240 (50.8% female), that asked them about both past and current gambling harms. RESULTS A majority of both gamblers and CSOs of gamblers indicated that they still suffered from gambling harm even after most of their behavioural issues with gambling had been resolved, 12+ months ago. Legacy gambling harms reduced over time, with harms diminishing most quickly in the early years, and having an average half-life of 4 years. Harms involving community-relationships, church involvement, and domestic and other violence resolved more quickly than others. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Legacy harms are common among ex-problem gamblers and should be considered in any full accounting of the impacts of gambling. CONCLUSION Understanding the time course and persistence of legacy harms from gambling can provide gamblers, treatment professionals and public health experts with insights into how to address gambling's long-term consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Rockloff
- Central Queensland University, Australia,Corresponding author. E-mail:
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Rockloff M, Armstrong T, Hing N, Browne M, Russell AMT, Bellringer M, du Preez KP, Lowe G. Legacy Gambling Harms: What Happens Once the Gambling Stops? CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40429-022-00434-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose of Review
Legacy gambling harm refers to adverse consequences that extend past the period where people are actively gambling at harmful levels. These harms can affect the gambler, people close to them and the wider community. This article reviews current research that investigates legacy harms; the types of legacy harm, how long they last and whether evidence suggests these harms are real or instead imagined injuries or reflections on past regrets.
Recent Findings
Legacy harms to individuals can be broadly categorised as including financial, relationship, emotional/psychological, health, culture, work/study and criminal/deviance harms. In addition, legacy harms affect entire communities by drawing funds and social capital away from vulnerable communities, leaving them socially, culturally and materially impoverished. Most legacy harms that accrue to gamblers have a half-life of 4 years, although financial harms last somewhat longer at 5 years. Greater distance in time from a past gambling issue is reliably and positively related to health and well-being indicators, including the Health Utility Index and the Australian Unity Wellbeing Index, which suggests that legacy gambling harms are real and have a lasting impact on well-being, rather than just imagined hardship from prior gambling difficulties.
Summary
These findings suggest programme and policy development to support gamblers in reducing and managing their legacy harms, rather than focusing only on relapse prevention.
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Newall PWS, Weiss-Cohen L. The Gamblification of Investing: How a New Generation of Investors Is Being Born to Lose. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19095391. [PMID: 35564790 PMCID: PMC9105963 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Investing and gambling share key features, in that both involve risk, the coming together of two or more people, and both are voluntary activities. However, investing is generally a much better way than gambling for the average person to make long-run profits. This paper reviews evidence on two types of “gamblified” investment products where this advantage does not hold for investing: high-frequency stock trading and high-risk derivatives. This review defines a gamblified investment product as one that leads most investors to lose, that attracts people at risk of experiencing gambling-related harm, and that utilizes product design principles from gambling (either by encouraging a high frequency of use or by providing the allure of big lottery-like wins). The gamblification of investing produces novel challenges for the regulation of both financial markets and gambling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip W. S. Newall
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TU, UK
- Correspondence:
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Delfabbro P, King DL, Williams J. The psychology of cryptocurrency trading: Risk and protective factors. J Behav Addict 2021; 10:201-207. [PMID: 34152998 PMCID: PMC8996802 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2021.00037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Crypto-currency trading is a rapidly growing form of behaviour characterised by investing in highly volatile digital assets based largely on blockchain technology. In this paper, we review the particular structural characteristics of this activity and its potential to give rise to excessive or harmful behaviour including over-spending and compulsive checking. We note that there are some similarities between online sports betting and day trading, but also several important differences. These include the continuous 24-hour availability of trading, the global nature of the market, and the strong role of social media, social influence and non-balance sheet related events as determinants of price movements. METHODS We review the specific psychological mechanisms that we propose to be particular risk factors for excessive crypto trading, including: over-estimations of the role of knowledge or skill, the fear of missing out (FOMO), preoccupation, and anticipated regret. The paper examines potential protective and educational strategies that might be used to prevent harm to inexperienced investors when this new activity expands to attract a greater percentage of retail or community investors. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The paper suggests the need for more specific research into the psychological effects of regular trading, individual differences and the nature of decision-making that protects people from harm, while allowing them to benefit from developments in blockchain technology and crypto-currency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Delfabbro
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Daniel L. King
- College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, South Australia, Australia
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Browne M, Rawat V, Tulloch C, Murray-Boyle C, Rockloff M. The Evolution of Gambling-Related Harm Measurement: Lessons from the Last Decade. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18094395. [PMID: 33919050 PMCID: PMC8122250 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18094395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Jurisdictions around the world have a self-declared mandate to reduce gambling-related harm. However, historically, this concept has suffered from poor conceptualisation and operationalisation. However, recent years have seen swift advances in measuring gambling harm, based on the principle of it being a quantifiable decrement to the health and wellbeing of the gambler and those connected to them. This review takes stock of the background and recent developments in harm assessment and summarises recent research that has validated and applied the Short Gambling Harms Screen and related instruments. We recommend that future work builds upon the considerable psychometric evidence accumulated for the feasibility of direct elicitation of harmful consequences. We also advocate for grounding harms measures with respect to scalar changes to public health utility metrics. Such an approach will avoid misleading pseudo-clinical categorisations, provide accurate population-level summaries of where the burden of harm is carried, and serve to integrate gambling research with the broader field of public health.
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Is There a Continuum of Behavioural Dependence in Problem Gambling? Evidence from 15 Years of Australian Prevalence Research. Int J Ment Health Addict 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11469-021-00509-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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A framework for indirect elicitation of the public health impact of gambling problems. BMC Public Health 2020; 20:1717. [PMID: 33198709 PMCID: PMC7670710 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-020-09813-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Gambling problems are increasingly understood as a health-related condition, with harms from excessive time and money expenditure contributing to significant population morbidity. In many countries, the prevalence of gambling problems is known with some precision. However, the true severity of gambling problems in terms of their impact on health and wellbeing is the subject of ongoing debate. We firstly review recent research that has attempted to estimate harm from gambling, including studies that estimate disability weights using direct elicitation. Limitations of prior approaches are discussed, most notably potential inflation due to non-independent comorbidity with other substance use and mental health conditions, and potential biases in the subjective attribution of morbidity to gambling. An alternative indirect elicitation approach is outlined, and a conceptual framework for its application to gambling is provided. Significant risk factors for propensity to develop gambling problems are enumerated, and relative risks for comorbidities are calculated from recent meta-analyses and reviews. Indirect elicitation provides a promising alternative framework for assessing the causal link between gambling problems and morbidity. This approach requires implementation of propensity score matching to estimate the counterfactual, and demands high quality information of risk factors and comorbid conditions, in order to estimate the unique contribution of gambling problems. Gambling harm is best understood as a decrement to health utility. However, achieving consensus on the severity of gambling problems requires triangulation of results from multiple methodologies. Indirect elicitation with propensity score matching and accounting for comorbidities would provide an important step towards full integration of gambling within a public health paradigm.
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On the Limits and Challenges of Public Health Approaches in Addressing Gambling-Related Problems. Int J Ment Health Addict 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11469-020-00276-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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