Addressing the Challenges and Opportunities for Today's Youth: Toward an Integrative Model and its Implications for Research and Intervention

Hong Kong Adolescents' Participation in Political Activities: Correlates of Violent Political Participation

The present study aimed to examine Hong Kong junior secondary school students' participation in different types of political activities, to identify profiles of adolescents based on their political participation, and to examine potential protective and risk factors associated with adolescents' violent political participation during the social unrest in Hong Kong from a positive youth development perspective. A total of 2,016 students (age = 13.92 ± 1.10 years) recruited from 24 secondary schools in Hong Kong participated in an online survey six months after the social unrest subsided. The findings provide a comprehensive descriptive profile of Hong Kong adolescents' political participation. Four clusters of adolescents with homogeneous patterns of political participation were identified: (1) "Politically Inactive" (42.6%); (2) "Legal Participant" (27.5%); (3) "Radical/Violent Activist" (13.0%); and (4) "Peaceful Activist" (17.0%). Logistic regression analysis showed that being female, born in Hong Kong, having a weak local identity and a strong national identity, a high level of bonding, prosocial involvement and prosocial norms, a low level of parental psychological control and family conflict, and a good parent-child relationship were associated with a low risk of adolescents' violent political participation. The findings point to the needs to further promote social cohesion in Hong Kong society, to help adolescents avoid the potentially essentialized dichotomy in their identity construction, and to develop programs targeting the identified risk and protective factors to prevent adolescents from engaging in political violence and to promote their civic participation.

Substance use and individual assets in urban adolescents: Subgroups and correlates in emerging adulthood

INTRODUCTION

To investigate patterns of divergence in adolescent adjustment, this study examined the co-occurring patterns of adolescents' individual assets (e.g., school engagement, values) and substance use, and whether the co-occurring patterns were associated with later functioning in emerging adulthood.

METHODS

Participants were 358 (54% females), predominantly African American, urban adolescents, recruited at birth for a prospective study on the effects of prenatal substance exposure in the Midwest United States. Individual assets, using the Developmental Assets Profile, substance use (alcohol, tobacco, marijuana), via biologic assays and self-report, and substance use-related problems were assessed at age 15 years. High-school completion, substance use disorder, mental health symptoms, and legal problems were assessed at age 21 years.

RESULTS

Latent class analysis identified five classes as follows: high assets with low substance use (C1, 10.2%); moderate assets with low substance use (C2, 28.7%); low assets with low substance use (C3, 32%); moderate assets with high substance use (C4, 9.4%); and low assets with high substance use (C5, 19.2%). Despite similar levels of assets, adolescents in C5 reported more life adversities (suboptimal caregiving environment, daily hassles, non-birth parents' care) than those in C3. C4 and C5 reported more substance use disorder at age 21 years than the three low substance use classes; adolescents in C5 were less likely to complete high school than those in C2. More females in C5 reported greater mental health symptoms than those in C1 and C3, and criminal justice involvement than those in C1.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings underscore the significance of substance use in adolescence in disrupting healthy transition to adulthood, especially among females in the context of low individual assets.

The cultural persona as nexus between structural marginalization and youth risk behavior

Structural marginalization exerts its effects through multiple social-ecological levels down to the individual behavior of youth violence and related risks. However, there is very little research or theoretical literature documenting or specifying mechanisms, paths, and linkages across levels. This paper traces one path in which long-term structural constraints intersect with the adolescent development process via a construct called the cultural persona-a form of archetype or model that embodies the value-structure, role, and performance of violence and related risk behavior within the kinds of underground or street economies that develop and persist in high-poverty communities as an outcome of structural marginalization. This mechanism is described, together with its limitations, along with examples and recommendations for interventions and further research.

Children and Young People "In Care" Participating in a Peer-Mentoring Relationship: An Exploration of Resilience

The aim of this study was to explore how a 1-year peer-mentoring relationship contributed to change in young women "in care." Twenty semistructured, one-to-one interviews were conducted with mentors (n = 11) and mentees (n = 9) recruited from two different London local authorities. Participants' accounts were interpreted through a developmental lens to uncover developmental aspects and locus mechanisms through which transformative change took place. Resilience as a healthy outcome was the result of the dual function the mentoring relationship performed. The mentoring relationship was protective against the risks associated with transitioning to independent living and/or adulthood, and promoted internal assets and competencies whereby the mentees' ability to resist them was enhanced. Establishing a trustworthy connection with a role model promoted developmental domains within mentees.

Moving adolescents for a lifetime of physical activity: shifting to interventions aligned with the third health revolution

Public health advocates have been calling for an intensified focus on early, middle, and late adolescence health behaviours due to both the short- and long-term health consequences. Hence, both the health-risk (e.g., alcohol consumption) and health-promoting (e.g., physical activity) behaviours of adolescents have been widely studied to better understand the underlying causes or determinants with an eye towards implementing more effective interventions. The success of these interventions, typically grounded in a risk-reduction/prevention-oriented intervention approach has been modest, especially those focused on health-promoting behaviours, such as physical activity. The purposes of this paper are to (1) conduct a conceptual critique of the risk-reduction/prevention-oriented approach underlying traditional adolescent physical activity interventions, and (2) examine the potential usefulness of an emerging person-based, development-oriented (PBDO) approach for enhancing the motivation and sustainability of adolescent physical activity. Within this PBDO perspective, emphasis is on adolescent growth and development as the starting point for initiating and sustaining physical activity. Implications of the PBDO approach for adolescent physical activity interventions are presented.

Profiles of individual assets and mental health symptoms in at-risk early adolescents

INTRODUCTION

Few studies investigated the combined patterns of individual assets (e.g., social competence, positive identity) and mental health symptoms (MHS) in adolescents. This study examined the patterns of early adolescents' individual assets and MHS and whether identified patterns were associated with later adolescents' outcomes.

METHODS

Participants were 352 (164 boys, 188 girls) adolescents who were primarily African-American and from low socioeconomic status families, participating in a prospective study of the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure from birth in the Midwest United States. Individual assets, using the Developmental Assets Profile, and MHS, using the Youth Self-Report, were assessed at age 12. Substance use, via self-report and biologic assays, early (before age 15) sexual behaviors, and behavioral adjustment were assessed at age 15.

RESULTS

Latent profile analysis indicated four distinctive profiles: low assets with elevated MHS (P1, n = 54, 15.3%); adequate assets with thought and social problems (P2, n = 84, 23.9%); low assets without MHS (P3, n = 101, 28.7%); and high assets without MHS (P4, n = 113, 32.1%). Children in the profile with high assets without MHS (P4) were more likely to have a higher IQ and to be in a more optimal environment (higher parental monitoring and less family conflict) than those in other profiles. Although profiles with MHS were associated with adolescent risk behaviors, this relationship was more pronounced for girls than for boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Girls in the low assets with elevated MHS (P1) should be a primary concern for preventive intervention. Our study demonstrates the heterogeneity of individual patterns of adaptation and maladaptation.

Individual assets and problem behaviors in at-risk adolescents: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis

Autoregressive cross-lagged structural equation modeling was conducted to examine longitudinal relationships between individual assets (social competence, positive values and identity) and problem behaviors in 373 adolescents (174 boys, 199 girls) who participated in a prospective study on the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure from birth. More behavioral problems at age 12 were related to fewer individual assets at age 15, while greater individual assets were related to more behavioral problems, with a non-significant yet nuanced (p = .076) gender difference. More problem behaviors were associated with decreased individual assets in girls, yet greater individual assets were associated with more problem behaviors in boys. Efforts to promote individual assets may not lower the risk of engaging in problem behaviors especially among boys. Continued studies into adulthood will uncover how individual assets and problem behaviors in childhood and adolescence may affect social and vocational adjustment in this high risk population.

How Do Contextual Factors Influence Implementation and Receipt of Positive Youth Development Programs Addressing Substance Use and Violence? A Qualitative Meta-Synthesis of Process Evaluations

OBJECTIVE

Positive youth development (PYD) often aims to prevent tobacco, alcohol, and drugs use and violence. We systematically reviewed PYD interventions, synthesizing process, and outcomes evidence. Synthesis of outcomes, published elsewhere, found no overall evidence of reducing substance use or violence but notable variability of fidelity. Our synthesis of process evaluations examined how implementation varied and was influenced by context.

DATA SOURCE

Process evaluations of PYD aiming to reduce substance use and violence. Study Inclusion Criteria: Overall review published since 1985; written in English; focused on youth aged 11 to 18 years; focused on interventions addressing multiple positive assets; reported on theory, process, or outcomes; and concerned with reducing substance use or violence. Synthesis of process evaluations examined how implementation varies with or is influenced by context.

DATA EXTRACTION

Two reviewers in parallel.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Thematic synthesis.

RESULTS

We identified 12 reports. Community engagement enhanced program appeal. Collaboration with other agencies could broaden the activities offered. Calm but authoritative staff increased acceptability. Staff continuity underpinned diverse activities and durable relationships. Empowering participants were sometimes in tension with requiring them to engage in diverse activities.

CONCLUSION

Our systematic review identified factors that might help improve the fidelity and acceptability of PYD interventions. Addressing these might enable PYD to fulfill its potential as a means of promoting health.

The effects of Positive Youth Development interventions on substance use, violence and inequalities: systematic review of theories of change, processes and outcomes

Background

Positive Youth Development (PYD) delivered outside school aims to enable young people to develop positive assets such as relationships and confidence, rather than to merely address risk. Existing reviews of PYD effects on substance use or violence are old and unsystematic.

Objectives

To systematically review evidence to answer the following questions: what theories of change inform PYD interventions addressing substance use and violence? What characteristics of participants and contexts are identified as barriers to and facilitators of implementation and receipt in process evaluations of PYD? What is the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of PYD in reducing substance use and violence? What characteristics of participants and contexts appear to moderate, or are necessary and sufficient for, PYD effectiveness?

Data sources

A total of 21 bibliographic databases; 35 websites and contacting authors.

Review methods

We included reports published in English since 1985 and reporting on theories of change, as well as process, outcome and economic evaluations of PYD targeting 11- to 18-year-olds and addressing substance use or violence. References were screened on title/abstract and, where appropriate, on full report. Data extraction and quality assessment used Critical Appraisal Skills Programme, Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre and Cochrane tools. Theories of change and process evaluations were qualitatively metasynthesised. Outcome evaluations were synthesised narratively and meta-analytically.

Results

32,394 unique references were identified and 48 were included. A total of 16 reports described theories, 13 (10 studies) evaluated processes and 25 (10 studies) evaluated outcomes.

Theories of change

PYD interventions aim to offer opportunities for young people to develop positive ‘assets’ such as skills and confidence. These are theorised to promote and be promoted by young people’s ‘intentional self-regulation’, which involves reflecting on behaviour; determining goals; using existing resources to pursue these; and redirecting effort when thwarted. This enables ‘developmental regulation’, namely individuals capitalising on other opportunities to promote personal development. Positive assets thus accrued reduce health risks by reducing the impact on individuals of environmental risk or by ameliorating the impact of such risks. The literature offers limited insights beyond these general ideas.

Process evaluations

Community engagement ensured that programmes were accessible and appealing. Staff capacity and continuity were crucial factors but often challenging when programmes could not offer full-time jobs. Tensions arose between a desire to empower participants to choose activities and a requirement for them to undertake a breadth of activities.

Outcome evaluations

Meta-analyses of all combined outcomes and of short-term alcohol use, illicit drug use and smoking found no significant effects. There were small, statistically significant, short-term effects for an omnibus measure of substance use and for violence. We could not undertake metaregression to assess sociodemographic moderators but narrative synthesis suggested no clear pattern of effects by sex. We found no economic evaluations.

Limitations

Insufficient studies precluded qualitative comparative analyses.

Conclusions

How PYD might promote health is currently undertheorised. Implementation can be challenging. We found little evidence that current PYD interventions delivered outside school reduce substance use or violence. However, these may not constitute a test of the effectiveness of the PYD model, as some included interventions that, although meeting our inclusion criteria, were not exemplars of PYD.

Future work

Further evaluations should assess interventions employing PYD theory of change.

Study registration

This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42013005439.

Funding

The National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.

Applying Ecological Positive Youth Development Theory to Address Co-Occurring Health Disparities Among Immigrant Latino Youth

This article outlines the theory and resulting approach employed in a multilevel, integrated, collaborative community intervention called Adelante, implemented by a university-community partnership in a Latino immigrant community to address co-occurring health disparities of substance abuse, sex risk, and interpersonal violence among youth. The basis for the intervention is a social-ecological interpretation of positive youth development theory, which focuses on changes in the person environment context and community assets as a preventive mechanism. This approach is viewed as appropriate for a community facing multiple barriers to health equity. The article describes the translation of this positive youth development model to practice, including the design of the intervention, intervention components, and the protocol for evaluation. The Adelante intervention is intended to reduce health disparities and, in addition, to add a broader community model to the evidence base.

What is positive youth development and how might it reduce substance use and violence? A systematic review and synthesis of theoretical literature

Background

Preventing adolescent substance use and youth violence are public health priorities. Positive youth development interventions are widely deployed often with the aim of preventing both. However, the theorised mechanisms by which PYD is intended to reduce substance use and violence are not clear and existing evaluated interventions are under-theorised. Using innovative methods, we systematically searched for and synthesised published theoretical literature describing what is meant by positive youth development and how it might reduce substance use and violence, as part of a broader systematic review examining process and outcomes of PYD interventions.

Methods

We searched 19 electronic databases, review topic websites, and contacted experts between October 2013 and January 2014. We included studies written in English, published since 1985 that reported a theory of change for positive youth development focused on prevention of smoking, alcohol consumption, drug use or violence in out-of-school settings. Studies were independently coded and quality-assessed by two reviewers.

Results

We identified 16 studies that met our inclusion criteria. Our synthesis suggests that positive youth development aims to provide youth with affective relationships and diverse experiences which enable their development of intentional self-regulation and multiple positive assets. These in turn buffer against or compensate for involvement in substance use and violence. Existing literature is not clear on how intentional self-regulation is developed and which specific positive assets buffer against substance use or violence.

Conclusions

Our synthesis provides: an example of a rigorous systematic synthesis of theory literature innovatively applying methods of qualitative synthesis to theoretical literature; a clearer understanding of how PYD might reduce substance use and violence to inform future interventions and empirical evaluations.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12889-016-2817-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Evaluating Youth Development Programs: Progress and Promise

Advances in theories of adolescent development and positive youth development have greatly increased our understanding of how programs and practices with adolescents can impede or enhance their development. In this paper the authors reflect on the progress in research on youth development programs in the last two decades, since possibly the first review of empirical evaluations by Roth, Brooks-Gunn, Murray, and Foster (1998). The authors use the terms Version 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 to refer to changes in youth development research and programs over time. They argue that advances in theory and descriptive accounts of youth development programs (Version 2.0) need to be coupled with progress in definitions of youth development programs, measurement of inputs and outputs that incorporate an understanding of programs as contexts for development, and stronger design and evaluation of programs (Version 3.0). The authors also advocate for an integration of prevention and promotion research, and for use of the term youth development rather than positive youth development.

DEFINING THE "COMMUNITY" FOR A COMMUNITY-BASED PUBLIC HEALTH INTERVENTION ADDRESSING LATINO IMMIGRANT HEALTH DISPARITIES: AN APPLICATION OF ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS

Although Latino and other immigrant populations are the driving force behind population increases in the U.S., there are significant gaps in knowledge and practice on addressing health disparities in these populations. The Avance Center for the Advancement of Immigrant/Refugee Health, a health disparities research center in the Washington, DC area, includes as part of its mission a multi-level, participatory community intervention (called Adelante) to address the co-occurrence of substance abuse, violence and sex risk among Latino immigrant youth and young adults. Research staff and community partners knew that the intervention community had grown beyond its Census-designated place (CDP) boundaries, and that connection and attachment to community were relevant to an intervention. Thus, in order to understand current geographic and social boundaries of the community for sampling, data collection, intervention design and implementation, the research team conducted an ethnographic study to identify self-defined community boundaries, both geographic and social. Beginning with preliminary data from a pilot intervention and the original CDP map, the research included: geo-mapping de-identified addresses of service clients from a major community organization; key informant interviews; and observation and intercept interviews in the community. The results provided an expanded community boundary profile and important information about community identity.

Special issue introduction: Thriving across the adolescent years: a view of the issues

Framed within a relational developmental systems model, the 4-H Study of positive youth development (PYD) explored the bases and implications of thriving across much of the second decade of life. This special issue pertains to information derived from the recently completed eight waves of the 4-H Study of PYD, and presents findings about the relations between individual and contextual variables that are involved in the thriving process. This introduction briefly reviews the historical background and the theoretical frame for the 4-H Study and describes its general methodology. We provide an overview of the articles in this special issue and discuss the ways in which the articles elucidate different facets of the thriving process. In addition, we discuss the implications of this research for future scholarship and for applications aimed at improving the life chances of diverse adolescents.

Beyond the deficit model: bullying and trajectories of character virtues in adolescence

Previous work on peer victimization has focused primarily on academic outcomes and negative indicators of youth involved in bullying. Few studies have taken a strength-based approach to examine attributes associated with bullies and victims of bullying. As such, we examined developmental trajectories of moral, performance, and civic character components, and their links to bully status using data from 713 youth (63% female) who participated in Wave 3 (approximately Grade 7) through Wave 6 (approximately Grade 10) of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Latent growth curve analyses indicated that moral character was stable across waves, whereas civic character increased slightly by Wave 6. Trajectories for performance character varied; some youth alternatively displayed positive versus negative growth. Youth who reported bullying behavior reported lower initial levels of moral, performance, and civic character as compared to youth not involved in bullying. Bully-victims reported lower initial levels of moral and civic character as compared to youth not involved in bullying. Implications for future work examining character-related components in the context of peer victimization are discussed.

The role of ecological assets in positive and problematic developmental trajectories

Two theoretical perspectives have been proposed to describe, explain, and intervene in adolescent development - prevention science and positive youth development (PYD). An integrative model bridging these two perspectives posits that it is important to assess the extent to which the same, similar, or complementary mechanisms may be responsible for preventing problem behavior and promoting PYD. Therefore, using data from the 4-H Study of PYD, the present study examines the role of assets in the family, school, and neighborhood in differentiating trajectories of goal-optimization and delinquency in a sample of 626 youth (50.9% female) from Grades 5 to 11. The results indicated that collective activity in the family best predicted membership for the five goal-optimization trajectories while school-based assets differentiated the four delinquency trajectories that were identified. The findings suggest that multidimensional approaches may be most effective to promote PYD and prevent problem behaviors.

Individual and contextual bases of thriving in adolescence: a view of the issues

We introduce this special issue on the individual and contextual bases of adolescent thriving by describing the relational developmental systems theory-based, positive youth development (PYD) perspective that frames much of contemporary research about health and positive development across the adolescent period and that, more specifically, frames the 4-H Study of PYD, the data set from which the empirical work in this special issue is drawn. All articles point to the combined role of characteristics of the person and ecological assets in the family, school, or community settings of youth to promote the development of PYD. We discuss how these articles provide evidence about the empirical usefulness of the PYD perspective and discuss how research testing the PYD model has new and important implications for both adolescent development research and for the application of developmental science.

Connecting youth violence prevention, positive youth development, and community mobilization

Several disconnects serve to weaken the use of evidence based programming in community settings. Communities face the need to address the challenges of multiple risk behaviors faced by adolescents in their communities, but must also work to support successful transitions to adulthood and the broader positive development of their youth. The stronger integration of positive youth development and prevention of youth risk at the community level may offer an opportunity to support the implementation and ongoing development of evidence-based practices (EBPs). This article provides an overview of the VCU Clark-Hill Institute for Positive Youth Development Institute's community mobilization effort in Richmond, Virginia and reports preliminary findings from our integrated mobilization efforts. First, we review the role of our Community Advisory Council in their collaborative work to support positive youth development and reduce risk for youth violence. Next, we present examples of institute efforts in providing technical assistance relevant to supporting the use and development of EBPs. We then discuss the adaptation of an evidence-based program to target positive youth development. We also present overviews from qualitative investigations examining barriers and supports that inform and are relevant to the implementation of EBPs. Finally, we consider ways in which community efforts inform and shape institute efforts to develop EPBs. Taken together, these activities provide examples of how community-based mobilization efforts can integrate and inform the implementation of EBPs and the role and use of prevention science as a tool in supporting effective programming to promote positive youth development and prevent youth violence.

The Influence of Linguistic Acculturation and Gender on the Initiation of Substance Use Among Mexican Heritage Preadolescents in the Borderlands

This article examined the impact of linguistic acculturation and gender on the substance use initiation of a sample of 1,473 Mexican heritage preadolescents attending 30 public schools in Phoenix, Arizona. It was hypothesized that linguistic acculturation operates differently as a risk or protective factor for young children than for older youth. The study used discrete-time event history methods to model the rate at which nonusing children initiate substance use. Alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, and inhalants were studied separately while inhalant use was examined more closely. Results suggested that while linguistic acculturation is a risk factor for Mexican heritage preadolescents, this association depended on gender, the linguistic acculturation context (family, friends, or media), and the type of substance. For inhalants, higher linguistic acculturation with friends was inversely associated with drug initiation both for boys and girls. Implications for preventive science and future intervention research are discussed.

Protecting and promoting: an integrative conceptual model for healthy development of adolescents

Resilience and positive youth development have substantial overlap and offer complementary perspectives on fostering healthy youth development. However, these two areas have not yet been fully integrated into a unified approach, one that has the potential to build on the interconnectedness of risk, protection, and assets within the ecological systems affecting adolescent development. This article draws on extant research to delineate linkages between the risk and resilience and positive youth development literatures. School-related outcomes are examined within an integrative conceptual model delineating eight developmental domains useful for future research on underlying mechanisms associated with healthy outcomes, as well as prevention and intervention efforts.

The impact of family, peer, and school contexts on depressive symptoms in adolescents with spina bifida

OBJECTIVE

Based on social ecological theory, this study examined the joint relations among adolescents' family, peer, and school contexts and depressive symptoms in youth with spina bifida using cumulative, protective, and specific effects models.

METHOD

Sixty families of adolescents with spina bifida and 65 comparison families reported on adolescents' positive experiences within these contexts and on depressive symptoms when youth were 14-15 and 16-17 years old.

RESULTS

Adolescents with spina bifida had fewer total positive contexts and less positive experience within peer and school contexts, as compared to typically developing adolescents. Greater total number of positive contexts and higher levels of positive experiences within family and school contexts were associated with fewer depressive symptoms for both groups; peer positive experiences were related to lower depressive symptoms for typically developing adolescents only.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents with spina bifida have fewer positive contexts, which may place them at risk for higher levels of depressive symptoms.

Profiles of protection from substance use among adolescents

The purpose of this study was to explore whether adolescents (N = 10,287) could be classified into homogeneous subgroups based on their protective factors and, if so, whether these constellations of protection differentially relate to adolescents' lifetime and 30-day alcohol and tobacco use. Latent class analysis with eight protective factors--four internal and four external--were used to identify the underlying latent class structure. Five profiles of protection emerged: Adequate Protection (54%), Adequate External Protection (9%), Adequate Protection with Low Adult Communication (16%), Adequate Protection with Risky Friends (9%), and Inadequate Protection (12%). Lifetime alcohol use was associated with only a modest increase in odds of belonging to the Adequate External or Low Adult Communication latent classes, but an enormous increase in odds of having Inadequate Protection or Risky Friends. Similar effects were found for past month alcohol use. Unlike alcohol use, which was related most strongly with membership in the Risky Friends latent class (relative to Adequate Protection), cigarette use was most strongly related to membership in the Inadequate Protection latent class. Findings can be used to inform prevention programs as they illustrate the relationships that exist between adolescents' profiles of protection and substance use.

An empirical test of ecodevelopmental theory in predicting HIV risk behaviors among Hispanic youth

Ecodevelopmental theory is a theoretical framework used to explain the interplay among risk and protective processes associated with HIV risk behaviors among adolescents. Although ecodevelopmentally based interventions have been found to be efficacious in preventing HIV risk behaviors among Hispanic youth, this theory has not yet been directly empirically tested through a basic research study in this population. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to empirically evaluate an ecodevelopmentally based model using structural equation modeling, with substance use and early sex initiation as the two outcomes of the ecodevelopmental chain of relationships. The sample consisted of 586 Hispanic youth (M age = 13.6; SD = 0.75) and their primary caregivers living in Miami, Florida. Adolescent, parent, and teacher reports were used. The results provided strong support for the theoretical model. More specifically, the parent-adolescent acculturation gap is indirectly related both to early sex initiation and to adolescent substance use through family functioning, academic functioning, perceived peer sexual behavior, and perceived peer substance use. Additionally, parent's U.S. orientation is associated with adolescent substance use and adolescent sex initiation through social support for parents, parental stressors, family functioning, academic functioning, and perceived peer sexual behavior and substance use. These findings suggest that HIV risk behaviors may best be understood as associated with multiple and interrelated ecological determinants.

The Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being: Psychometric properties, demographic comparisons, and evidence of validity

The Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being (QEWB) was developed to measure well-being in a manner consistent with how it is conceptualized in eudaimonist philosophy. Aspects of eudaimonic well-being assessed by the QEWB include self-discovery, perceived development of one's best potentials, a sense of purpose and meaning in life, intense involvement in activities, investment of significant effort, and enjoyment of activities as personally expressive. The QEWB was administered to two large, ethnically diverse samples of college students drawn from multiple sites across the United States. A three-part evaluation of the instrument was conducted: (1) evaluating psychometric properties, (2) comparing QEWB scores across gender, age, ethnicity, family income, and family structure, and (3) assessing the convergent, discriminant, construct, and incremental validity of the QEWB. Six hypotheses relating QEWB scores to identity formation, personality traits, and positive and negative psychological functioning were evaluated. The internal consistency of the scale was high and results of independent CFAs indicated that the QEWB items patterned onto a common factor. The distribution of scores approximated a normal curve. Demographic variables were found to predict only small proportions of QEWB score variability. Support for the hypotheses tested provides evidence for the validity of the QEWB as an instrument for assessing eudaimonic well-being. Implications for theory and future research directions are discussed.

Problematics of Time and Timing in the Longitudinal Study of Human Development: Theoretical and Methodological Issues

Studying human development involves describing, explaining, and optimizing intraindividual change and interindividual differences in such change and, as such, requires longitudinal research. The selection of the appropriate type of longitudinal design requires selecting the option that best addresses the theoretical questions asked about developmental process and the use of appropriate statistical procedures to best exploit data derived from theory-predicated longitudinal research. This paper focuses on several interrelated problematics involving the treatment of time and the timing of observations that developmental scientists face in creating theory-design fit and in charting in change-sensitive ways developmental processes across life. We discuss ways in which these problematics may be addressed to advance theory-predicated understanding of the role of time in processes of individual development.

Effects of Family Functioning and Identity Confusion on Substance Use and Sexual Behavior in Hispanic Immigrant Early Adolescents

The present study examined the relationships of (a) changes in adolescent-reported family functioning and (b) changes in identity confusion to onset of substance use and sexual behavior in a sample of 250 Hispanic adolescents from immigrant families. Adolescents were followed for 3 years. Results indicated that adolescents whose identity confusion scores increased over time were most likely to initiate cigarette use, alcohol use, and sexual behavior during the course of the study. Adolescents whose identity confusion scores remained stable over time were less likely to initiate, and adolescents whose identity confusion scores decreased over time were least likely to initiate. The data were consistent with the proposition that initial levels of and changes in family functioning appeared to be responsible for these associations. Implications for identity research and intervention are discussed.

Adolescent neurological development and its implications for adolescent substance use prevention

Recent technological advancements have facilitated the study of adolescent neurological development and its implications for adolescent decision-making and behavior. This article reviews findings from the adolescent neurodevelopment and substance use prevention literatures. It also discusses how findings from these two distinct areas of adolescent development can complement each other and be used to build more developmentally appropriate interventions for preventing adolescent substance use. Specifically, a combination of child-centered and family-based strategies is advocated based on extant neurological and prevention literature. EDITORS' STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS: Researchers are encouraged to take up the authors' challenge and study the links between adolescent neurological development/decision making ability and the long term efficacy of comprehensive interventions for preventing adolescent substance use.