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Barreira-Pinto R, Carneiro R, Miranda M, Guedes RM. Polymer-Matrix Composites: Characterising the Impact of Environmental Factors on Their Lifetime. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:ma16113913. [PMID: 37297046 DOI: 10.3390/ma16113913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Polymer-matrix composites are widely used in engineering applications. Yet, environmental factors impact their macroscale fatigue and creep performances significantly, owing to several mechanisms acting at the microstructure level. Herein, we analyse the effects of water uptake that are responsible for swelling and, over time and in enough quantity, for hydrolysis. Seawater, due to a combination of high salinity and pressures, low temperature and biotic media present, also contributes to the acceleration of fatigue and creep damage. Similarly, other liquid corrosive agents penetrate into cracks induced by cyclic loading and cause dissolution of the resin and breakage of interfacial bonds. UV radiation either increases the crosslinking density or scissions chains, embrittling the surface layer of a given matrix. Temperature cycles close to the glass transition damage the fibre-matrix interface, promoting microcracking and hindering fatigue and creep performance. The microbial and enzymatic degradation of biopolymers is also studied, with the former responsible for metabolising specific matrices and changing their microstructure and/or chemical composition. The impact of these environmental factors is detailed for epoxy, vinyl ester and polyester (thermoset); polypropylene, polyamide and poly etheretherketone (thermoplastic); and for poly lactic acid, thermoplastic starch and polyhydroxyalkanoates (biopolymers). Overall, the environmental factors mentioned hamper the fatigue and creep performances, altering the mechanical properties of the composite or causing stress concentrations through microcracks, promoting earlier failure. Future studies should focus on other matrices beyond epoxy as well as on the development of standardised testing methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Barreira-Pinto
- Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rodrigo Carneiro
- Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Mário Miranda
- Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rui Miranda Guedes
- Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- INEGI-Instituto de Engenharia Mecânica e Gestão Industrial, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
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Brunning H, Sallach JB, Zanchi V, Price O, Boxall A. Toward a Framework for Environmental Fate and Exposure Assessment of Polymers. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:515-540. [PMID: 34913523 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Development of risk-assessment methodologies for polymers is an emerging regulatory priority to prevent negative environmental impacts; however, the diversity and complexity of polymers require adaptation of existing environmental risk-assessment approaches. The present review discusses the challenges and opportunities for the fate and exposure assessment of polymers in the context of regulatory environmental risk assessment of chemicals. The review discusses the applicability and adequacy for polymers of existing fate parameters used for nonpolymeric compounds and proposes additional parameters that could inform the fate of polymers. The significance of these parameters in various stages of an exposure-assessment framework is highlighted, with classification of polymers as solid or dissolved being key for identification of those parameters most relevant to environmental fate. Considerations to address the key limitations and knowledge gaps are then identified and discussed, specifically the complexity of polymer identification, with the need for characterization of the most significant parameters for polymer grouping and prioritization; the complexity of polymer degradation in the environment, with the need to incorporate the fate and hazards of degradation products into risk assessment; the requirement for development and standardization of analytical methods for characterization of polymer fate properties and degradation products; and the need to develop exposure modeling approaches for polymers. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:515-540. © 2021 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hattie Brunning
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - J Brett Sallach
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Alistair Boxall
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York, United Kingdom
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Heitmann AP, Coura Rocha I, de Souza PP, Oliveira LC, de O. Patrício PS. Photoactivation of a biodegradable polymer (PHB): Generation of radicals for pollutants oxidation. Catal Today 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2018.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Fromentin E, Aymes-Chodur C, Doizi D, Cornaton M, Miserque F, Cochin F, Ferry M. On the radio-oxidation, at high doses, of an industrial polyesterurethane and its pure resin. Polym Degrad Stab 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Lambert S, Wagner M. Environmental performance of bio-based and biodegradable plastics: the road ahead. Chem Soc Rev 2017; 46:6855-6871. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00149e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 340] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This review provides a critical discussion as to the future direction of plastic materials, including balancing factors such as biodegradability and longevity, effects of additive compounds, feedstock developments, and environmental considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Lambert
- Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13
- Frankfurt
- Germany
| | - Martin Wagner
- Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13
- Frankfurt
- Germany
- Department of Biology
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)
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da Costa JP, Santos PSM, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. (Nano)plastics in the environment - Sources, fates and effects. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 566-567:15-26. [PMID: 27213666 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 486] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- João Pinto da Costa
- CESAM and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Patrícia S M Santos
- CESAM and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Armando C Duarte
- CESAM and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Teresa Rocha-Santos
- CESAM and Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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Lambert S, Sinclair C, Boxall A. Occurrence, degradation, and effect of polymer-based materials in the environment. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2014; 227:1-53. [PMID: 24158578 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-01327-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
There is now a plethora of polymer-based materials (PBMs) on the market, because of the increasing demand for cheaper consumable goods, and light-weight industrial materials. Each PBM constitutes a mixture of their representative polymer/sand their various chemical additives. The major polymer types are polyethylene, polypropylene,and polyvinyl chloride, with natural rubber and biodegradable polymers becoming increasingly more important. The most important additives are those that are biologically active, because to be effective such chemicals often have properties that make them resistant to photo-degradation and biodegradation. During their lifecycle,PBMs can be released into the environment form a variety of sources. The principal introduction routes being general littering, dumping of unwanted waste materials,migration from landfills and emission during refuse collection. Once in the environment,PBMs are primarily broken down by photo-degradation processes, but due to the complex chemical makeup of PBMs, receiving environments are potentially exposed to a mixture of macro-, meso-, and micro-size polymer fragments, leached additives, and subsequent degradation products. In environments where sunlight is absent (i.e., soils and the deep sea) degradation for most PBMs is minimal .The majority of literature to date that has addressed the environmental contamination or disposition of PBMs has focused on the marine environment. This is because the oceans are identified as the major sink for macro PBMs, where they are known to present a hazard to wildlife via entanglement and ingestion. The published literature has established the occurrence of microplastics in marine environment and beach sediments, but is inadequate as regards contamination of soils and freshwater sediments. The uptake of microplastics for a limited range of aquatic organisms has also been established, but there is a lack of information regarding soil organisms, and the long-term effects of microplastic uptake are also less well understood.There is currently a need to establish appropriate degradation test strategies consistent with realistic environmental conditions, because the complexity of environmental systems is lost when only one process (e.g., hydrolysis) is assessed in isolation. Enhanced methodologies are also needed to evaluate the impact of PBMs to soil and freshwater environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Lambert
- The University of York, Heslington Road, York, YO10 5DD, UK,
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Xing W, Yuan H, zhang P, Yang H, Song L, Hu Y. Functionalized lignin for halogen-free flame retardant rigid polyurethane foam: preparation, thermal stability, fire performance and mechanical properties. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-013-0234-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Lambert S, Sinclair CJ, Bradley EL, Boxall ABA. Effects of environmental conditions on latex degradation in aquatic systems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2013; 447:225-234. [PMID: 23384646 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Revised: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Following use polymer materials may be released to the natural environment distributed to various environmental compartments and may undergo a variety of mechanical and chemical weathering processes. This study characterised the degradation of a latex polymer of different thicknesses under a range of environmental conditions in outdoor microcosms. Samples were immersed in either demineralised water, artificial freshwater and marine water media and exposed for a period of 200-250 days with exposure starting at different times of the year. Effects of pH, agitation and the exclusion of light on degradation were also studied. At the end of the exposure period, recovery of polymer material ≥ 1.6 μm ranged from a low of 22.04% (± 16.35, for the freshwater treatment at pH5.5) to a high of 97.73% (± 0.38, for the exclusion of light treatment). The disappearance of the bulk material corresponded to an increase in nanoparticles and dissolved organic material in the test media. Modelled degradation kinetics were characterised by multi-phasic degradation patterns and the results indicated degradation rate is affected by light intensity and polymer thickness. Mass balance analysis indicates that losses of volatile materials to the air compartment may also be occurring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Lambert
- Environment Department, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, UK.
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Investigation on structure and properties of cobalt(II)/polyesterurethane metallopolymer films. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-012-0018-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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