Skeletal regulatory proteins enhance thin filament sliding speed and force by skeletal HMM

Mechanisms of myosin II force generation: insights from novel experimental techniques and approaches

Myosin II is a molecular motor that converts chemical energy derived from ATP hydrolysis into mechanical work. Myosin II isoforms are responsible for muscle contraction and a range of cell functions relying on the development of force and motion. When the motor attaches to actin, ATP is hydrolyzed and inorganic phosphate (Pi) and ADP are released from its active site. These reactions are coordinated with changes in the structure of myosin, promoting the so-called "power stroke" that causes the sliding of actin filaments. The general features of the myosin-actin interactions are well accepted, but there are critical issues that remain poorly understood, mostly due to technological limitations. In recent years, there has been a significant advance in structural, biochemical, and mechanical methods that have advanced the field considerably. New modeling approaches have also allowed researchers to understand actomyosin interactions at different levels of analysis. This paper reviews recent studies looking into the interaction between myosin II and actin filaments, which leads to power stroke and force generation. It reviews studies conducted with single myosin molecules, myosins working in filaments, muscle sarcomeres, myofibrils, and fibers. It also reviews the mathematical models that have been used to understand the mechanics of myosin II in approaches focusing on single molecules to ensembles. Finally, it includes brief sections on translational aspects, how changes in the myosin motor by mutations and/or posttranslational modifications may cause detrimental effects in diseases and aging, among other conditions, and how myosin II has become an emerging drug target.

Role of cardiac troponin I carboxy terminal mobile domain and linker sequence in regulating cardiac contraction

Inhibition of striated muscle contraction at resting Ca(2+) depends on the C-terminal half of troponin I (TnI) in thin filaments. Much focus has been on a short inhibitory peptide (Ip) sequence within TnI, but structural studies and identification of disease-associated mutations broadened emphasis to include a larger mobile domain (Md) sequence at the C-terminus of TnI. For Md to function effectively in muscle relaxation, tight mechanical coupling to troponin's core-and thus tropomyosin-is presumably needed. We generated recombinant, human cardiac troponins containing one of two TnI constructs: either an 8-amino acid linker between Md and the rest of troponin (cTnILink8), or an Md deletion (cTnI1-163). Motility assays revealed that Ca(2+)-sensitivity of reconstituted thin filament sliding was markedly increased with cTnILink8 (∼0.9 pCa unit leftward shift of speed-pCa relation compared to WT), and increased further when Md was missing entirely (∼1.4 pCa unit shift). Cardiac Tn's ability to turn off filament sliding at diastolic Ca(2+) was mostly (61%), but not completely eliminated with cTnI1-163. TnI's Md is required for full inhibition of unloaded filament sliding, although other portions of troponin-presumably including Ip-are also necessary. We also confirm that TnI's Md is not responsible for superactivation of actomyosin cycling by troponin.

Contractile properties of developing human fetal cardiac muscle

KEY POINTS

The contractile properties of human fetal cardiac muscle have not been previously studied. Small-scale approaches such as isolated myofibril and isolated contractile protein biomechanical assays allow study of activation and relaxation kinetics of human fetal cardiac muscle under well-controlled conditions. We have examined the contractile properties of human fetal cardiac myofibrils and myosin across gestational age 59-134 days. Human fetal cardiac myofibrils have low force and slow kinetics of activation and relaxation that increase during the time period studied, and kinetic changes may result from structural maturation and changes in protein isoform expression. Understanding the time course of human fetal cardiac muscle structure and contractile maturation can provide a framework to study development of contractile dysfunction with disease and evaluate the maturation state of cultured stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.

ABSTRACT

Little is known about the contractile properties of human fetal cardiac muscle during development. Understanding these contractile properties, and how they change throughout development, can provide valuable insight into human heart development, and provide a framework to study the early stages of cardiac diseases that develop in utero. We characterized the contractile properties of isolated human fetal cardiac myofibrils across 8-19 weeks of gestation. Mechanical measurements revealed that in early stages of gestation there is low specific force and slow rates of force development and relaxation, with increases in force and the rates of activation and relaxation as gestation progresses. The duration and slope of the initial, slow phase of relaxation, related to myosin detachment and thin filament deactivation rates, decreased with gestation age. F-actin sliding on human fetal cardiac myosin-coated surfaces slowed significantly from 108 to 130 days of gestation. Electron micrographs showed human fetal muscle myofibrils elongate and widen with age, but features such as the M-line and Z-band are apparent even as early as day 52. Protein isoform analysis revealed that β-myosin is predominantly expressed even at the earliest time point studied, but there is a progressive increase in expression of cardiac troponin I (TnI), with a concurrent decrease in slow skeletal TnI. Together, our results suggest that cardiac myofibril force production and kinetics of activation and relaxation change significantly with gestation age and are influenced by the structural maturation of the sarcomere and changes in contractile filament protein isoforms.

Impact of tropomyosin isoform composition on fast skeletal muscle thin filament regulation and force development

Tropomyosin (Tm) plays a central role in the regulation of muscle contraction and is present in three main isoforms in skeletal and cardiac muscles. In the present work we studied the functional role of α- and βTm on force development by modifying the isoform composition of rabbit psoas skeletal muscle myofibrils and of regulated thin filaments for in vitro motility measurements. Skeletal myofibril regulatory proteins were extracted (78%) and replaced (98%) with Tm isoforms as homogenous ααTm or ββTm dimers and the functional effects were measured. Maximal Ca(2+) activated force was the same in ααTm versus ββTm myofibrils, but ββTm myofibrils showed a marked slowing of relaxation and an impairment of regulation under resting conditions compared to ααTm and controls. ββTm myofibrils also showed a significantly shorter slack sarcomere length and a marked increase in resting tension. Both these mechanical features were almost completely abolished by 10 mM 2,3-butanedione 2-monoxime, suggesting the presence of a significant degree of Ca(2+)-independent cross-bridge formation in ββTm myofibrils. Finally, in motility assay experiments in the absence of Ca(2+) (pCa 9.0), complete regulation of thin filaments required greater ββTm versus ααTm concentrations, while at full activation (pCa 5.0) no effect was observed on maximal thin filament motility speed. We infer from these observations that high contents of ββTm in skeletal muscle result in partial Ca(2+)-independent activation of thin filaments at rest, and longer-lasting and less complete tension relaxation following Ca(2+) removal.

Ca++-sensitizing mutations in troponin, P(i), and 2-deoxyATP alter the depressive effect of acidosis on regulated thin-filament velocity

Repeated, intense contractile activity compromises the ability of skeletal muscle to generate force and velocity, resulting in fatigue. The decrease in velocity is thought to be due, in part, to the intracellular build-up of acidosis inhibiting the function of the contractile proteins myosin and troponin; however, the underlying molecular basis of this process remains poorly understood. We sought to gain novel insight into the decrease in velocity by determining whether the depressive effect of acidosis could be altered by 1) introducing Ca(++)-sensitizing mutations into troponin (Tn) or 2) by agents that directly affect myosin function, including inorganic phosphate (Pi) and 2-deoxy-ATP (dATP) in an in vitro motility assay. Acidosis reduced regulated thin-filament velocity (VRTF) at both maximal and submaximal Ca(++) levels in a pH-dependent manner. A truncated construct of the inhibitory subunit of Tn (TnI) and a Ca(++)-sensitizing mutation in the Ca(++)-binding subunit of Tn (TnC) increased VRTF at submaximal Ca(++) under acidic conditions but had no effect on VRTF at maximal Ca(++) levels. In contrast, both Pi and replacement of ATP with dATP reversed much of the acidosis-induced depression of VRTF at saturating Ca(++). Interestingly, despite producing similar magnitude increases in VRTF, the combined effects of Pi and dATP were additive, suggesting different underlying mechanisms of action. These findings suggest that acidosis depresses velocity by slowing the detachment rate from actin but also by possibly slowing the attachment rate.

Contractility and kinetics of human fetal and human adult skeletal muscle

Little is known about the contraction and relaxation properties of fetal skeletal muscle, and measurements thus far have been made with non-human mammalian muscle. Data on human fetal skeletal muscle contraction are lacking, and there are no published reports on the kinetics of either fetal or adult human skeletal muscle myofibrils. Understanding the contractile properties of human fetal muscle would be valuable in understanding muscle development and a variety of muscle diseases that are associated with mutations in fetal muscle sarcomere proteins. Therefore, we characterised the contractile properties of developing human fetal skeletal muscle and compared them to adult human skeletal muscle and rabbit psoas muscle. Electron micrographs showed human fetal muscle sarcomeres are not fully formed but myofibril formation is visible. Isolated myofibril mechanical measurements revealed much lower specific force, and slower rates of isometric force development, slow phase relaxation, and fast phase relaxation in human fetal when compared to human adult skeletal muscle. The duration of slow phase relaxation was also significantly longer compared to both adult groups, but was similarly affected by elevated ADP. F-actin sliding on human fetal skeletal myosin coated surfaces in in vitro motility (IVM) assays was much slower compared with adult rabbit skeletal myosin, though the Km(app) (apparent (fitted) Michaelis-Menten constant) of F-actin speed with ATP titration suggests a greater affinity of human fetal myosin for nucleotide binding. Replacing ATP with 2 deoxy-ATP (dATP) increased F-actin speed for both groups by a similar amount. Titrations of ADP into IVM assays produced a similar inhibitory affect for both groups, suggesting ADP binding may be similar, at least under low load. Together, our results suggest slower but similar mechanisms of myosin chemomechanical transduction for human fetal muscle that may also be limited by immature myofilament structure.

Future challenges in single-molecule fluorescence and laser trap approaches to studies of molecular motors

Single-molecule analysis is a powerful modern form of biochemistry, in which individual kinetic steps of a catalytic cycle of an enzyme can be explored in exquisite detail. Both single-molecule fluorescence and single-molecule force techniques have been widely used to characterize a number of protein systems. We focus here on molecular motors as a paradigm. We describe two areas where we expect to see exciting developments in the near future: first, characterizing the coupling of force production to chemical and mechanical changes in motors, and second, understanding how multiple motors work together in the environment of the cell.

Micromechanical thermal assays of Ca2+-regulated thin-filament function and modulation by hypertrophic cardiomyopathy mutants of human cardiac troponin

Microfabricated thermoelectric controllers can be employed to investigate mechanisms underlying myosin-driven sliding of Ca(2+)-regulated actin and disease-associated mutations in myofilament proteins. Specifically, we examined actin filament sliding-with or without human cardiac troponin (Tn) and α-tropomyosin (Tm)-propelled by rabbit skeletal heavy meromyosin, when temperature was varied continuously over a wide range (~20-63°C). At the upper end of this temperature range, reversible dysregulation of thin filaments occurred at pCa 9 and 5; actomyosin function was unaffected. Tn-Tm enhanced sliding speed at pCa 5 and increased a transition temperature (T(t)) between a high activation energy (E(a)) but low temperature regime and a low E(a) but high temperature regime. This was modulated by factors that alter cross-bridge number and kinetics. Three familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (FHC) mutations, cTnI R145G, cTnI K206Q, and cTnT R278C, cause dysregulation at temperatures ~5-8°C lower; the latter two increased speed at pCa 5 at all temperatures.

Skeletal myotube formation enhanced by electrospun polyurethane carbon nanotube scaffolds

BACKGROUND

This study examined the effects of electrically conductive materials made from electrospun single- or multiwalled carbon nanotubes with polyurethane to promote myoblast differentiation into myotubes in the presence and absence of electrical stimulation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

After electrical stimulation, the number of multinucleated myotubes on the electrospun polyurethane carbon nanotube scaffolds was significantly larger than that on nonconductive electrospun polyurethane scaffolds (5% and 10% w/v polyurethane). In the absence of electrical stimulation, myoblasts also differentiated on the electrospun polyurethane carbon nanotube scaffolds, as evidenced by expression of Myf-5 and myosin heavy chains. The myotube number and length were significantly greater on the electrospun carbon nanotubes with 10% w/v polyurethane than on those with 5% w/v polyurethane. The results suggest that, in the absence of electrical stimulation, skeletal myotube formation is dependent on the morphology of the electrospun scaffolds, while with electrical stimulation it is dependent on the electrical conductivity of the scaffolds.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that electrospun polyurethane carbon nanotubes can be used to modulate skeletal myotube formation with or without application of electrical stimulation.

The role of tropomyosin domains in cooperative activation of the actin-myosin interaction

To establish α-tropomyosin (Tm)'s structure-function relationships in cooperative regulation of muscle contraction, thin filaments were reconstituted with a variety of Tm mutants (Δ2Tm, Δ3Tm, Δ6Tm, P2sTm, P3sTm, P2P3sTm, P1P5Tm, and wtTm), and force and sliding velocity of the thin filament were studied using an in vitro motility assay. In the case of deletion mutants, Δ indicates which of the quasi-equivalent repeats in Tm was deleted. In the case of period (P) mutants, an Ala cluster was introduced into the indicated period to strengthen the Tm-actin interaction. In P1P5Tm, the N-terminal half of period 5 was substituted with that of period 1 to test the quasi-equivalence of these two Tm periods. The reconstitution included bovine cardiac troponin. Deletion studies revealed that period 3 is important for the positive cooperative effect of Tm on actin filament regulation and that period 2 also contributes to this effect at low ionic strength, but to a lesser degree. Furthermore, Tm with one extra Ala cluster at period 2 (P2s) or period 3 (P3s) did not increase force or velocity, whereas Tm with two extra Ala clusters (P2P3s) increased both force and velocity, demonstrating interaction between these periods. Most mutants did not move in the absence of Ca(2+). Notable exceptions were Δ6Tm and P1P5Tm, which moved near at the full velocity, but with reduced force, which indicate impaired relaxation. These results are consistent with the mechanism that the Tm-actin interaction cooperatively affects actin to result in generation of greater force and velocity.

Upregulation of cardiomyocyte ribonucleotide reductase increases intracellular 2 deoxy-ATP, contractility, and relaxation

We have previously demonstrated that substitution of ATP with 2 deoxy-ATP (dATP) increased the magnitude and rate of force production at all levels of Ca²⁺-mediated activation in demembranated cardiac muscle. In the current study we hypothesized that cellular [dATP] could be increased by viral-mediated over expression of the ribonucleotide reductase (Rrm1 and Rrm2) complex, which would increase contractility of adult rat cardiomyocytes. Cell length and ratiometric (fura2) Ca²⁺ fluorescence were monitored by video microscopy. At 0.5 Hz stimulation, the extent of shortening was increased ~40% and maximal rate of shortening was increased ~80% in cardiomyocytes overexpressing Rrm1+Rrm2 as compared to non-transduced cardiomyocytes. The maximal rate of relaxation was also increased ~150% with Rrm1+Rrm2 over expression, resulting in decreased time to 50% relaxation over non-transduced cardiomyocytes. These differences were even more dramatic when compared to cardiomyocytes expressing GFP-only. Interestingly, Rrm1+Rrm2 over expression had no effect on minimal or maximal intracellular [Ca²⁺] (Fura2 fluorescence), indicating increased contractility is primarily due to increased myofilament activity without altering Ca²⁺ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Additionally, functional potentiation was maintained with Rrm1+Rrm2 over expression as stimulation frequency was increased (1 Hz and 2 Hz). HPLC analysis indicated cellular [dATP] was increased by approximately 10-fold following transduction, becoming ~1.5% of the adenine nucleotide pool. Furthermore, 2% dATP was sufficient to significantly increase crossbridge binding and contractile force during sub-maximal Ca²⁺ activation in demembranated cardiac muscle. These experiments demonstrate the feasibility of directly targeting the actin-myosin chemomechanical crossbridge cycle to enhance cardiac contractility and relaxation without affecting minimal or maximal Ca²⁺.

Phosphorylation of tropomyosin extends cooperative binding of myosin beyond a single regulatory unit

Tropomyosin (Tm) is one of the major phosphoproteins comprising the thin filament of muscle. However, the specific role of Tm phosphorylation in modulating the mechanics of actomyosin interaction has not been determined. Here we show that Tm phosphorylation is necessary for long-range cooperative activation of myosin binding. We used a novel optical trapping assay to measure the isometric stall force of an ensemble of myosin molecules moving actin filaments reconstituted with either natively phosphorylated or dephosphorylated Tm. The data show that the thin filament is cooperatively activated by myosin across regulatory units when Tm is phosphorylated. When Tm is dephosphorylated, this "long-range" cooperative activation is lost and the filament behaves identically to bare actin filaments. However, these effects are not due to dissociation of dephosphorylated Tm from the reconstituted thin filament. The data suggest that end-to-end interactions of adjacent Tm molecules are strengthened when Tm is phosphorylated, and that phosphorylation is thus essential for long range cooperative activation along the thin filament.

Comparing guiding track requirements for myosin- and kinesin-powered molecular shuttles

The design of nanoscale transport systems utilizing motor proteins as engines has advanced rapidly. Here, actin/myosin- and microtubule/kinesin-based molecular shuttles are compared with respect to their requirements for track designs. To this end, the trajectory persistence length of actin filaments gliding on myosin-coated surfaces has been experimentally determined to be equal to 8.8 +/- 2 microm. This measurement complements an earlier determination of the trajectory persistence length of microtubules gliding on kinesin-coated surfaces and enables a comparison of the accessible track designs for kinesin and myosin motor-powered systems. Despite the 200-fold smaller stiffness of actin filaments compared to that of microtubules, the dimensions of myosin tracks for actin filaments have to be quite similar to the dimensions of kinesin tracks for microtubules (radii larger than 200 nm and widths smaller than 0.9 microm compared to 600 nm and 19 microm). The difference in gliding speed is shown to require additional consideration in the design of track modules.

Polyelectrolyte multilayer films of controlled stiffness modulate myoblast cells differentiation

Beside chemical properties and topographical features, mechanical properties of gels have been recently demonstrated to play an important role in various cellular processes, including cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. In this work, we used multilayer films made of poly(L-lysine)/Hyaluronan (PLL/HA) of controlled stiffness to investigate the effects of mechanical properties of thin films on skeletal muscle cells (C2C12 cells) differentiation. Prior to differentiation, cells need to adhere and proliferate in growth medium. Stiff films (E(0) > 320 kPa) promoted formation of focal adhesions and organization of the cytoskeleton as well as an enhanced proliferation, whereas soft films were not favorable for cell anchoring, spreading or proliferation. Then C2C12 cells were switched to a low serum containing medium to induce cell differentiation, which was also greatly dependent on film stiffness. Although myogenin and troponin T expressions were only moderately affected by film stiffness, the morphology of the myotubes exhibited striking stiffness-dependent differences. Soft films allowed differentiation only for few days and the myotubes were very short and thick. Cell clumping followed by aggregates detachment could be observed after ~2 to 4 days. On stiffer films, significantly more elongated and thinner myotubes were observed for up to ~ 2 weeks. Myotube striation was also observed but only for the stiffer films. These results demonstrate that film stiffness modulates deeply adhesion, proliferation and differentiation, each of these processes having its own stiffness requirement.

Thin-filament regulation of force redevelopment kinetics in rabbit skeletal muscle fibres

Thin-filament regulation of isometric force redevelopment (k(tr)) was examined in rabbit psoas fibres by substituting native TnC with either cardiac TnC (cTnC), a site I-inactive skeletal TnC mutant (xsTnC), or mixtures of native purified skeletal TnC (sTnC) and a site I- and II-inactive skeletal TnC mutant (xxsTnC). Reconstituted maximal Ca(2+)-activated force (rF(max)) decreased as the fraction of sTnC in sTnC: xxsTnC mixtures was reduced, but maximal k(tr) was unaffected until rF(max) was <0.2 of pre-extracted F(max). In contrast, reconstitution with cTnC or xsTnC reduced maximal k(tr) to 0.48 and 0.44 of control (P < 0.01), respectively, with corresponding rF(max) of 0.68 +/- 0.03 and 0.25 +/- 0.02 F(max). The k(tr)-pCa relation of fibres containing sTnC: xxsTnC mixtures (rF(max) > 0.2 F(max)) was little effected, though k(tr) was slightly elevated at low Ca(2+) activation. The magnitude of the Ca(2+)-dependent increase in k(tr) was greatly reduced following cTnC or xsTnC reconstitution because k(tr) at low levels of Ca(2+) was elevated and maximal k(tr) was reduced. Solution Ca(2+) dissociation rates (k(off)) from whole Tn complexes containing sTnC (26 +/- 0.1 s(-1)), cTnC (38 +/- 0.9 s(-1)) and xsTnC (50 +/- 1.2 s(-1)) correlated with k(tr) at low Ca(2+) levels and were inversely related to rF(max). At low Ca(2+) activation, k(tr) was similarly elevated in cTnC-reconstituted fibres with ATP or when cross-bridge cycling rate was increased with 2-deoxy-ATP. Our results and model simulations indicate little or no requirement for cooperative interactions between thin-filament regulatory units in modulating k(tr) at any [Ca(2+)] and suggest Ca(2+) activation properties of individual troponin complexes may influence the apparent rate constant of cross-bridge detachment.

Effects of the N-terminal domains of myosin binding protein-C in an in vitro motility assay: Evidence for long-lived cross-bridges

Myosin binding protein-C (MyBP-C) is a thick-filament protein whose precise function within the sarcomere is not known. However, recent evidence from cMyBP-C knock-out mice that lack MyBP-C in the heart suggest that cMyBP-C normally slows cross-bridge cycling rates and reduces myocyte power output. To investigate possible mechanisms by which cMyBP-C limits cross-bridge cycling kinetics we assessed effects of recombinant N-terminal domains of MyBP-C on the ability of heavy meromyosin (HMM) to support movement of actin filaments using in vitro motility assays. Here we show that N-terminal domains of cMyBP-C containing the MyBP-C "motif," a sequence of approximately 110 amino acids, which is conserved across all MyBP-C isoforms, reduced actin filament velocity under conditions where filaments are maximally activated (i.e. either in the absence of thin filament regulatory proteins or in the presence of troponin and tropomyosin and high [Ca2+]). By contrast, under conditions where thin filament sliding speed is submaximal (i.e. in the presence of troponin and tropomyosin and low [Ca2+]), proteins containing the motif increased filament speed. Recombinant N-terminal proteins also bound to F-actin and inhibited acto-HMM ATPase rates in solution. The results suggest that N-terminal domains of MyBP-C slow cross-bridge cycling kinetics by reducing rates of cross-bridge detachment.

Positive inotropic effects of low dATP/ATP ratios on mechanics and kinetics of porcine cardiac muscle

Substitution of 2'-deoxy ATP (dATP) for ATP as substrate for actomyosin results in significant enhancement of in vitro parameters of cardiac contraction. To determine the minimal ratio of dATP/ATP (constant total NTP) that significantly enhances cardiac contractility and obtain greater understanding of how dATP substitution results in contractile enhancement, we varied dATP/ATP ratio in porcine cardiac muscle preparations. At maximum Ca(2+) (pCa 4.5), isometric force increased linearly with dATP/ATP ratio, but at submaximal Ca(2+) (pCa 5.5) this relationship was nonlinear, with the nonlinearity evident at 2-20% dATP; force increased significantly with only 10% of substrate as dATP. The rate of tension redevelopment (k(TR)) increased with dATP at all Ca(2+) levels. k(TR) increased linearly with dATP/ATP ratio at pCa 4.5 and 5.5. Unregulated actin-activated Mg-NTPase rates and actin sliding speed linearly increased with the dATP/ATP ratio (p < 0.01 at 10% dATP). Together these data suggest cardiac contractility is enhanced when only 10% of the contractile substrate is dATP. Our results imply that relatively small (but supraphysiological) levels of dATP increase the number of strongly attached, force-producing actomyosin cross-bridges, resulting in an increase in overall contractility through both thin filament activation and kinetic shortening of the actomyosin cross-bridge cycle.

Different effects of cardiac versus skeletal muscle regulatory proteins on in vitro measures of actin filament speed and force

Mammalian cardiac and skeletal muscle express unique isoforms of the thin filament regulatory proteins, troponin (Tn) and tropomyosin (Tm), and the significance of these different isoforms in thin filament regulation has not been clearly identified. Both in vitro and skinned cellular studies investigating the mechanism of thin filament regulation in striated muscle have often used heterogeneous mixtures of Tn, Tm and myosin isoforms, and variability in reported results might be explained by different combinations of these proteins. Here we used in vitro motility and force (microneedle) assays to investigate the influence of cardiac versus skeletal Tn and Tm isoforms on actin-heavy meromyosin (HMM) mechanics. When interacting with skeletal HMM, thin filaments reconstituted with cardiac Tn/Tm or skeletal Tn/Tm exhibited similar speed-calcium relationships and significantly increased maximum speed and force per filament length (F/l) at pCa 5 (versus unregulated actin filaments). However, augmentation of F/l was greater with skeletal regulatory proteins. Reconstitution of thin filaments with the heterogeneous combination of skeletal Tn and cardiac Tm decreased sliding speeds at all [Ca2+] relative to thin filaments with skeletal Tn/Tm. Finally, for filaments reconstituted with any heterogeneous mix of Tn and Tm isoforms, force was not potentiated over that of unregulated actin filaments. Combined the results suggest (1) that cardiac regulatory proteins limit the allosteric enhancement of force, and (2) that Tn and Tm isoform homogeneity is important when studying Ca2+ regulation of crossbridge binding and kinetics as well as mechanistic differences between cardiac and skeletal muscle.

Cardiac troponin C (TnC) and a site I skeletal TnC mutant alter Ca2+ versus crossbridge contribution to force in rabbit skeletal fibres

We studied the relative contributions of Ca(2+) binding to troponin C (TnC) and myosin binding to actin in activating thin filaments of rabbit psoas fibres. The ability of Ca(2+) to activate thin filaments was reduced by replacing native TnC with cardiac TnC (cTnC) or a site I-inactive skeletal TnC mutant (xsTnC). Acto-myosin (crossbridge) interaction was either inhibited using N-benzyl-p-toluene sulphonamide (BTS) or enhanced by lowering [ATP] from 5.0 to 0.5 mm. Reconstitution with cTnC reduced maximal force (F(max)) by approximately 1/3 and the Ca(2+) sensitivity of force (pCa(50)) by 0.17 unit (P < 0.001), while reconstitution with xsTnC reduced F(max) by approximately 2/3 and pCa(50) by 0.19 unit (P < 0.001). In both cases the apparent cooperativity of activation (n(H)) was greatly decreased. In control fibres 3 mum BTS inhibited force to 57% of F(max) while in fibres reconstituted with cTnC or xsTnC, reconstituted maximal force (rF(max)) was inhibited to 8.8% and 14.3%, respectively. Under control conditions 3 mum BTS significantly decreased the pCa(50), but this effect was considerably reduced in cTnC reconstituted fibres, and eliminated in xsTnC reconstituted fibres. In contrast, when crossbridge cycle kinetics were slowed by lowering [ATP] from 5 to 0.5 mm in xsTnC reconstituted fibres, pCa(50) and n(H) were increased towards control values. Combined, our results demonstrate that when the ability of Ca(2+) binding to activate thin filaments is compromised, the relative contribution of strong crossbridges to maintain thin filament activation is increased. Furthermore, the data suggest that at low levels of Ca(2+), the level of thin filament activation is determined primarily by the direct effects of Ca(2+) on tropomyosin mobility, while at higher levels of Ca(2+) the final level of thin filament activation is primarily determined by strong cycling crossbridges.