Calmodulin binding is dispensable for Rem-mediated Ca2+ channel inhibition

A membrane-associated phosphoswitch in Rad controls adrenergic regulation of cardiac calcium channels

The ability to fight or flee from a threat relies on an acute adrenergic surge that augments cardiac output, which is dependent on increased cardiac contractility and heart rate. This cardiac response depends on β-adrenergic-initiated reversal of the small RGK G protein Rad-mediated inhibition of voltage-gated calcium channels (CaV) acting through the Cavβ subunit. Here, we investigate how Rad couples phosphorylation to augmented Ca2+ influx and increased cardiac contraction. We show that reversal required phosphorylation of Ser272 and Ser300 within Rad's polybasic, hydrophobic C-terminal domain (CTD). Phosphorylation of Ser25 and Ser38 in Rad's N-terminal domain (NTD) alone was ineffective. Phosphorylation of Ser272 and Ser300 or the addition of 4 Asp residues to the CTD reduced Rad's association with the negatively charged, cytoplasmic plasmalemmal surface and with CaVβ, even in the absence of CaVα, measured here by FRET. Addition of a posttranslationally prenylated CAAX motif to Rad's C-terminus, which constitutively tethers Rad to the membrane, prevented the physiological and biochemical effects of both phosphorylation and Asp substitution. Thus, dissociation of Rad from the sarcolemma, and consequently from CaVβ, is sufficient for sympathetic upregulation of Ca2+ currents.

Pleiotropic Roles of Calmodulin in the Regulation of KRas and Rac1 GTPases: Functional Diversity in Health and Disease

Calmodulin is a ubiquitous signalling protein that controls many biological processes due to its capacity to interact and/or regulate a large number of cellular proteins and pathways, mostly in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner. This complex interactome of calmodulin can have pleiotropic molecular consequences, which over the years has made it often difficult to clearly define the contribution of calmodulin in the signal output of specific pathways and overall biological response. Most relevant for this review, the ability of calmodulin to influence the spatiotemporal signalling of several small GTPases, in particular KRas and Rac1, can modulate fundamental biological outcomes such as proliferation and migration. First, direct interaction of calmodulin with these GTPases can alter their subcellular localization and activation state, induce post-translational modifications as well as their ability to interact with effectors. Second, through interaction with a set of calmodulin binding proteins (CaMBPs), calmodulin can control the capacity of several guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) to promote the switch of inactive KRas and Rac1 to an active conformation. Moreover, Rac1 is also an effector of KRas and both proteins are interconnected as highlighted by the requirement for Rac1 activation in KRas-driven tumourigenesis. In this review, we attempt to summarize the multiple layers how calmodulin can regulate KRas and Rac1 GTPases in a variety of cellular events, with biological consequences and potential for therapeutic opportunities in disease settings, such as cancer.

The GTPase Rem2 regulates synapse development and dendritic morphology

Rem2 is a member of the Rad/Rem/Rem2/Gem/Kir subfamily of small Ras-like GTPases that was identified as an important mediator of synapse development. We performed a comprehensive, loss- of-function analysis of Rem2 function in cultured hippocampal neurons using RNAi to substantially decrease Rem2 protein levels. We found that knockdown of Rem2 decreases the density and maturity of dendritic spines, the primary site of excitatory synapses onto pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus. Knockdown of Rem2 also alters the gross morphology of dendritic arborizations, increasing the number of dendritic branches without altering total neurite length. Thus, Rem2 functions to inhibit dendritic branching and promote the development of dendritic spines and excitatory synapses. Interestingly, binding to the calcium-binding protein calmodulin is required for the Rem2 regulation of dendritic branching. However, this interaction is completely dispensable for synapse development. Overall, our results suggest that Rem2 regulates dendritic branching and synapse development via distinct and overlapping signal transduction pathways.

The ß subunit of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels

Calcium regulates a wide spectrum of physiological processes such as heartbeat, muscle contraction, neuronal communication, hormone release, cell division, and gene transcription. Major entryways for Ca(2+) in excitable cells are high-voltage activated (HVA) Ca(2+) channels. These are plasma membrane proteins composed of several subunits, including α(1), α(2)δ, β, and γ. Although the principal α(1) subunit (Ca(v)α(1)) contains the channel pore, gating machinery and most drug binding sites, the cytosolic auxiliary β subunit (Ca(v)β) plays an essential role in regulating the surface expression and gating properties of HVA Ca(2+) channels. Ca(v)β is also crucial for the modulation of HVA Ca(2+) channels by G proteins, kinases, and the Ras-related RGK GTPases. New proteins have emerged in recent years that modulate HVA Ca(2+) channels by binding to Ca(v)β. There are also indications that Ca(v)β may carry out Ca(2+) channel-independent functions, including directly regulating gene transcription. All four subtypes of Ca(v)β, encoded by different genes, have a modular organization, consisting of three variable regions, a conserved guanylate kinase (GK) domain, and a conserved Src-homology 3 (SH3) domain, placing them into the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) protein family. Crystal structures of Ca(v)βs reveal how they interact with Ca(v)α(1), open new research avenues, and prompt new inquiries. In this article, we review the structure and various biological functions of Ca(v)β, with both a historical perspective as well as an emphasis on recent advances.

Rem GTPase interacts with the proximal CaV1.2 C-terminus and modulates calcium-dependent channel inactivation

The Rem, Rem2, Rad, and Gem/Kir (RGK) GTPases, comprise a subfamily of small Ras-related GTP-binding proteins, and have been shown to potently inhibit high voltage-activated Ca(2+) channel current following overexpression. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying RGK-mediated Ca(2+) channel regulation remains controversial, recent studies suggest that RGK proteins inhibit Ca(2+) channel currents at the plasma membrane in part by interactions with accessory channel β subunits. In this paper, we extend our understanding of the molecular determinants required for RGK-mediated channel regulation by demonstrating a direct interaction between Rem and the proximal C-terminus of Ca(V)1.2 (PCT), including the CB/IQ domain known to contribute to Ca(2+)/calmodulin (CaM)-mediated channel regulation. The Rem2 and Rad GTPases display similar patterns of PCT binding, suggesting that the Ca(V)1.2 C-terminus represents a common binding partner for all RGK proteins. In vitro Rem:PCT binding is disrupted by Ca(2+)/CaM, and this effect is not due to Ca(2+)/CaM binding to the Rem C-terminus. In addition, co-overexpression of CaM partially relieves Rem-mediated L-type Ca(2+) channel inhibition and slows the kinetics of Ca(2+)-dependent channel inactivation. Taken together, these results suggest that the association of Rem with the PCT represents a crucial molecular determinant in RGK-mediated Ca(2+) channel regulation and that the physiological function of the RGK GTPases must be re-evaluated. Rather than serving as endogenous inhibitors of Ca(2+) channel activity, these studies indicate that RGK proteins may play a more nuanced role, regulating Ca(2+) currents via modulation of Ca(2+)/CaM-mediated channel inactivation kinetics.