Biglycan promotes the chemotherapy resistance of colon cancer by activating NF-κB signal transduction

The dawn of a new Era: mRNA vaccines in colorectal cancer immunotherapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a typical cancer that accounts for 10% of all new cancer cases annually and nearly 10% of all cancer deaths. Despite significant progress in current classical interventions for CRC, these traditional strategies could be invasive and with numerous adverse effects. The poor prognosis of CRC patients highlights the evident and pressing need for more efficient and targeted treatment. Novel strategies regarding mRNA vaccines for anti-tumor therapy have also been well-developed since the successful application for the prevention of COVID-19. mRNA vaccine technology won the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, signaling a new direction in human anti-cancer treatment: mRNA medicine. As a promising new immunotherapy in CRC and other multiple cancer treatments, the mRNA vaccine has higher specificity, better efficacy, and fewer side effects than traditional strategies. The present review outlines the basics of mRNA vaccines and their advantages over other vaccines and informs an available strategy for developing efficient mRNA vaccines for CRC precise treatment. In the future, more exploration of mRNA vaccines for CRC shall be attached, fostering innovation to address existing limitations.

RAC1b Collaborates with TAp73α-SMAD4 Signaling to Induce Biglycan Expression and Inhibit Basal and TGF-β-Driven Cell Motility in Human Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly aggressive cancer type characterized by a marked desmoplastic tumor stroma that is formed under the influence of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. Data from mouse models of pancreatic cancer have revealed that transcriptionally active p73 (TAp73) impacts the TGF-β pathway through activation of Smad4 and secretion of biglycan (Bgn). However, whether this pathway also functions in human PDAC cells has not yet been studied. Here, we show that RNA interference-mediated silencing of TAp73 in PANC-1 cells strongly reduced the stimulatory effect of TGF-β1 on BGN. TAp73-mediated regulation of BGN, and inhibition of TGF-β signaling through a (Smad-independent) ERK pathway, are reminiscent of what we previously observed for the small GTPase, RAC1b, prompting us to hypothesize that in human PDAC cells TAp73 and RAC1b are part of the same tumor-suppressive pathway. Like TAp73, RAC1b induced SMAD4 protein and mRNA expression. Moreover, siRNA-mediated knockdown of RAC1b reduced TAp73 mRNA levels, while ectopic expression of RAC1b increased them. Inhibition of BGN synthesis or depletion of secreted BGN from the culture medium reproduced the promigratory effect of RAC1b or TAp73 silencing and was associated with increased basal and TGF-β1-dependent ERK activation. BGN also phenocopied the effects of RAC1b or TAp73 on the expression of downstream effectors, like the EMT markers E-cadherin, Vimentin and SNAIL, as well as on negative regulation of the ALK2-SMAD1/5 arm of TGF-β signaling. Collectively, we showed that tumor-suppressive TAp73-Smad4-Bgn signaling also operates in human cells and that RAC1b likely acts as an upstream activator of this pathway.

Mapping and modeling human colorectal carcinoma interactions with the tumor microenvironment

The initiation and progression of cancer are intricately linked to the tumor microenvironment (TME). Understanding the function of specific cancer-TME interactions poses a major challenge due in part to the complexity of the in vivo microenvironment. Here we predict cancer-TME interactions from single cell transcriptomic maps of both human colorectal cancers (CRCs) and mouse CRC models, ask how these interactions are altered in human tumor organoid (tumoroid) cultures, and functionally recapitulate human myeloid-carcinoma interactions in vitro. Tumoroid cultures suppress gene expression programs involved in inflammation and immune cell migration, providing a reductive platform for re-establishing carcinoma-immune cell interactions in vitro. Introduction of human monocyte-derived macrophages into tumoroid cultures instructs macrophages to acquire immunosuppressive and pro-tumorigenic gene expression programs similar to those observed in vivo. This includes hallmark induction of SPP1, encoding Osteopontin, an extracellular CD44 ligand with established oncogenic effects. Taken together, these findings offer a framework for understanding CRC-TME interactions and provide a reductionist tool for modeling specific aspects of these interactions.

An epigenetic modulator with promising therapeutic impacts against gastrointestinal cancers: A mechanistic review on microRNA-195

Due to their high prevalence, gastrointestinal cancers are one of the key causes of cancer-related death globally. The development of drug-resistant cancer cell populations is a major factor in the high mortality rate, and it affects about half of all cancer patients. Because of advances in our understanding of cancer molecular biology, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as critical factors in the initiation and development of gastrointestinal cancers. Gene expression can be controlled in several ways by ncRNAs, including through epigenetic changes, interactions between microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and proteins, and the function of lncRNAs as miRNA precursors or pseudogenes. As lncRNAs may be detected in the blood, circulating ncRNAs have emerged as a promising new class of non-invasive cancer biomarkers for use in the detection, staging, and prognosis of gastrointestinal cancers, as well as in the prediction of therapy efficacy. In this review, we assessed the role lncRNAs play in the progression, and maintenance of colorectal cancer, and how they might be used as therapeutic targets in the future.

The Landscape of Small Leucine-Rich Proteoglycan Impact on Cancer Pathogenesis with a Focus on Biglycan and Lumican

Cancer development is a multifactorial procedure that involves changes in the cell microenvironment and specific modulations in cell functions. A tumor microenvironment contains tumor cells, non-malignant cells, blood vessels, cells of the immune system, stromal cells, and the extracellular matrix (ECM). The small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) are a family of nineteen proteoglycans, which are ubiquitously expressed among mammalian tissues and especially abundant in the ECM. SLRPs are divided into five canonical classes (classes I-III, containing fourteen members) and non-canonical classes (classes IV-V, including five members) based on their amino-acid structural sequence, chromosomal organization, and functional properties. Variations in both the protein core structure and glycosylation status lead to SLRP-specific interactions with cell membrane receptors, cytokines, growth factors, and structural ECM molecules. SLRPs have been implicated in the regulation of cancer growth, motility, and invasion, as well as in cancer-associated inflammation and autophagy, highlighting their crucial role in the processes of carcinogenesis. Except for the class I SLRP decorin, to which an anti-tumorigenic role has been attributed, other SLPRs' roles have not been fully clarified. This review will focus on the functions of the class I and II SLRP members biglycan and lumican, which are correlated to various aspects of cancer development.

Enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of selenium-doped manganese phosphate for synergistic therapy of drug-resistant colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

The development of multidrug resistance (MDR) during postoperative chemotherapy for colorectal cancer substantially reduces therapeutic efficacy. Nanostructured drug delivery systems (NDDSs) with modifiable chemical properties are considered promising candidates as therapies for reversing MDR in colorectal cancer cells. Selenium-doped manganese phosphate (Se-MnP) nanoparticles (NPs) that can reverse drug resistance through sustained release of selenium have the potential to improve the chemotherapy effect of colorectal cancer.

RESULTS

Se-MnP NPs had an organic-inorganic hybrid composition and were assembled from smaller-scale nanoclusters. Se-MnP NPs induced excessive ROS production via Se-mediated activation of the STAT3/JNK pathway and a Fenton-like reaction due to the presence of manganese ions (Mn²⁺). Moreover, in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated Se-MnP NPs were effective drug carriers of oxaliplatin (OX) and reversed multidrug resistance and induced caspase-mediated apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells. OX@Se-MnP NPs reversed MDR in colorectal cancer by down-regulating the expression of MDR-related ABC (ATP binding cassette) transporters proteins (e.g., ABCB1, ABCC1 and ABCG2). Finally, in vivo studies demonstrated that OX-loaded Se-MnP NPs significantly inhibited proliferation of OX-resistant HCT116 (HCT116/DR) tumor cells in nude mice.

CONCLUSIONS

OX@Se-MnP NPs with simple preparation and biomimetic chemical properties represent promising candidates for the treatment of colorectal cancer with MDR.

Bioinformatics Identification of Therapeutic Gene Targets for Gastric Cancer

INTRODUCTION

The global prevalence of gastric cancer (GC) is increasing, and novel chemotherapeutic targets are needed.

METHODS

We searched for potential biomarkers for GC in three microarray data sets within the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. FunRich (v3.1.3) was used to perform Gene Ontology (GO) analyses and STRUN and Cytoscape (v3.6.0) were employed to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. To explore hub gene expression and survival, we used Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) and Kaplan-Meier (KM) plotter. Drugs that were closely related to key genes were screened by the Gene Set Cancer Analysis (GSCA), and relevant correlations were verified experimentally. We validated that the sensitivity of a GC cell line to these drugs was correlated with fibrillin 1 (FBN1) mRNA expression levels.

RESULTS

We identified 83 upregulated and 133 downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and these were enriched with regards to their cellular component (extracellular and exosomes), molecular function (extracellular matrix structural constituent and catalytic activity), and biological process (cell growth and/or maintenance and metabolism). The biological pathways most prominently involved were epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and β3 integrin cell surface interactions. For the PPI network, we selected 10 hub genes, and 70% of these were significantly connected to poor overall survival (OS) in patients with GC. We found a significant link between the expression of FBN1 and two small molecule drugs (PAC-1 and PHA-793887).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, we suggest that these hub genes can be used as biomarkers and novel targets for GC. FBN1 may be associated with drug resistance in gastric cancer.

Development of a Cancer-Associated Fibroblast-Related Prognostic Model in Breast Cancer via Bulk and Single-Cell RNA Sequencing

Background

The most numerous cells in the tumor microenvironment, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a crucial role in cancer development. Our objective was to develop a cancer-associated fibroblast breast cancer predictive model.

Methods

We acquire breast cancer (BC) scRNA-seq data from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), and "Seurat" was used for data processing, including quality control, filtering, principal component analysis, and t-SNE. Afterward, "singleR" software was used to annotate cells. Seurat's "FindAllMarkers" program is used to locate particular CAF markers. clusterProfiler was used to analyze Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database was utilized to provide univariate Cox regression, least absolute shrinkage operator (LASSO) analysis using bulk RNA-seq data. For model development, multivariate Cox regression studies are used. Utilizing pRRophetic and Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) algorithms, chemosensitivity and immunotherapy response were predicted. The "rms" software was used to facilitate and simplify modeling.

Results

Integrating the scRNA-seq (GSE176078) dataset yielded 28 cell clusters. In addition, well-known cell types helped identify 12 cell types. We found 193 marker genes that are elevated in CAFs. In addition, a five-gene predictive model associated to CAF was created in the training set. In the training set, the validation set, and the external validation set, greater risk scores were associated with a worse prognosis. And individuals with a higher risk score were more susceptible to immunotherapy and conventional chemotherapy medicines.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we establish a strong prognostic model comprised of 5 genes related with CAF that might serve as a potent prognostic indicator and aid clinicians in making more rational medication choices.

Identification of BGN and THBS2 as metastasis-specific biomarkers and poor survival key regulators in human colon cancer by integrated analysis

BACKGROUND

Colon cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Exploring key regulators in colon cancer metastatic progression could lead to better outcomes for patients.

METHODS

Initially, the transcriptional profiles of 681 colonrectal cancer (CRC) cases were used to discover signature genes that were significantly correlated with colon cancer metastasis. These signature genes were then validated using another independent 210 CRC cases' transcriptomics and proteomics profiles, and Kaplan-Meier regression analyses were used to screen the key regulators with patients' survival. Immunohistochemical staining was used to confirm the biomarkers, and transit knockdown was used to explore their implications on colon cancer cells migration and invasion abilities. The impact on the key signalling molecules in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process that drive tumour metastasis was tested using Western blot. The response to clinical standard therapeutic drugs was compared to clinical prognosis of key regulators using an ROC plotter.

RESULTS

Five genes (BGN, THBS2, SPARC, CDH11 and SPP1) were initially identified as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets of colon cancer metastasis. The most significant signatures associated with colon cancer metastasis were determined to be BGN and THBS2. Furthermore, highly expression of BGN and THBS2 in tumours was linked to a worse survival rate. BGN and THBS2 knockdown significantly reduced colon cancer cells migration and invasion, as well as down-regulating three EMT-related proteins (Snail, Vimentin and N-cadherin), and increasing the proliferation inhibitory effect of 5-fluorouracil, irinotecan and oxaliplatin treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

CRC metastatic progression, EMT phenotypic transition and poor survival time have been linked to BGN and THBS2. They could be utilized as potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets for colon cancer metastatic patients with a better prognosis.

Constructed the ceRNA network and predicted a FEZF1-AS1/miR-92b-3p/ZIC5 axis in colon cancer

The purpose of this study was to identify the role of FEZF1-AS1 in colon cancer and predicted the underlying mechanism. We extracted sequencing data of colon cancer patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas database, identified the differential expression of long noncoding RNA, microRNA, and messenger RNA, constructed a competitive endogenous RNA network, and then analyzed prognosis. Then, we used the enrichment analysis databases for functional analysis. Finally, we studied the FEZF1-AS1/miR-92b-3p/ZIC5 axis. We detected the expression of FEZF1-AS1, miR-92b-3p, and ZIC5 via quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, transfected colon cancer cell RKO with lentivirus and conducted FEZF1-AS1 knockdown, and performed cancer-related functional assays. It indicated that many RNA in the competitive endogenous RNA network, such as ZIC5, were predicted to be related to overall survival of colon cancer patients, and enrichment analysis showed cancer-related signaling pathways, such as PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. The expression of FEZF1-AS1 and ZIC5 was significantly higher and that of miR-92b-3p was lower in the colon cancer than in the normal colon tissues. FEZF1-AS1 promoted the migration, proliferation, as well as invasion of RKO. According to the prediction, FEZF1-AS1 and ZIC5 might competitively bind to miR-92b-3p, leading to the weakening of the inhibitory impact of miR-92b-3p on ZIC5 and increasing expression of ZIC5, thus further activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, which led to the occurrence and development of colon cancer. The study suggested that FEZF1-AS1 might be an effective diagnosis biomarker for colon cancer.

The multifaceted role of Matricellular Proteins in health and cancer, as biomarkers and therapeutic targets

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is composed of a mesh of proteins, proteoglycans, growth factors, and other secretory components. It constitutes the tumor microenvironment along with the endothelial cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, adipocytes, and immune cells. The proteins of ECM can be functionally classified as adhesive proteins and matricellular proteins (MCP). In the tumor milieu, the ECM plays a major role in tumorigenesis and therapeutic resistance. The current review encompasses thrombospondins, osteonectin, osteopontin, tenascin C, periostin, the CCN family, laminin, biglycan, decorin, mimecan, and galectins. The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are also discussed as they are an integral part of the ECM with versatile functions in the tumor stroma. In this review, the role of these proteins in tumor initiation, growth, invasion and metastasis have been highlighted, with emphasis on their contribution to tumor therapeutic resistance. Further, their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets based on existing evidence are discussed. Owing to the recent advancements in protein targeting, the possibility of agents to modulate MCPs in cancer as therapeutic options are discussed.

Impact of Vimentin on Regulation of Cell Signaling and Matrix Remodeling

Vimentin expression contributes to cellular mechanoprotection and is a widely recognized marker of fibroblasts and of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. But it is not understood how vimentin affects signaling that controls cell migration and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. Recent data indicate that vimentin controls collagen deposition and ECM structure by regulating contractile force application to the ECM and through post-transcriptional regulation of ECM related genes. Binding of cells to the ECM promotes the association of vimentin with cytoplasmic domains of adhesion receptors such as integrins. After initial adhesion, cell-generated, myosin-dependent forces and signals that impact vimentin structure can affect cell migration. Post-translational modifications of vimentin determine its adaptor functions, including binding to cell adhesion proteins like paxillin and talin. Accordingly, vimentin regulates the growth, maturation and adhesive strength of integrin-dependent adhesions, which enables cells to tune their attachment to collagen, regulate the formation of cell extensions and control cell migration through connective tissues. Thus, vimentin tunes signaling cascades that regulate cell migration and ECM remodeling. Here we consider how specific properties of vimentin serve to control cell attachment to the underlying ECM and to regulate mesenchymal cell migration and remodeling of the ECM by resident fibroblasts.

Novel antiangiogenic therapy targeting biglycan using tumor endothelial cell-specific liposomal siRNA delivery system

Tumor blood vessels play important roles in tumor progression and metastasis. Targeting tumor endothelial cells (TECs) is one of the strategies for cancer therapy. We previously reported that biglycan, a small leucine‐rich proteoglycan, is highly expressed in TECs. TECs utilize biglycan in an autocrine manner for migration and angiogenesis. Furthermore, TEC‐derived biglycan stimulates tumor cell migration in a paracrine manner leading to tumor cell intravasation and metastasis. In this study, we explored the therapeutic effect of biglycan inhibition in the TECs of renal cell carcinoma using an in vivo siRNA delivery system known as a multifunctional envelope‐type nanodevice (MEND), which contains a unique pH‐sensitive cationic lipid. To specifically deliver MEND into TECs, we incorporated cyclo(Arg–Gly–Asp–d–Phe–Lys) (cRGD) into MEND because α_Vβ₃ integrin, a receptor for cRGD, is selective and highly expressed in TECs. We developed RGD‐MEND‐encapsulating siRNA against biglycan. First, we confirmed that MEND was delivered into OS‐RC‐2 tumor‐derived TECs and induced in vitro RNAi‐mediated gene silencing. MEND was then injected intravenously into OS‐RC‐2 tumor‐bearing mice. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that MEND was specifically delivered into TECs. Quantitative RT‐PCR indicated that biglycan was knocked down by biglycan siRNA‐containing MEND. Finally, we analyzed the therapeutic effect of biglycan silencing by MEND in TECs. Tumor growth was inhibited by biglycan siRNA‐containing MEND. Tumor microenvironmental factors such as fibrosis were also normalized using biglycan inhibition in TECs. Biglycan in TECs can be a novel target for cancer treatment.

Landscape of cancer-associated fibroblasts identifies the secreted biglycan as a protumor and immunosuppressive factor in triple-negative breast cancer

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are essential for tumor microenvironment remodeling and correlate with tumor progression. However, interactions between CAFs and tumor cells and immune cells in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) are still poorly explored. Here, we investigate the role of CAFs in TNBC and potential novel mediators of their functions. The clustering of classic markers was applied to estimate the relative abundance of CAFs in TNBC cohorts. Primary fibroblasts were isolated from normal and tumor samples. The RNA and culture medium of fibroblasts were subjected to RNA sequencing and mass spectrometry to explore the upregulated signatures in CAFs. Microdissection and single-cell RNA sequencing datasets were used to examine the expression profiles. CAFs were associated with hallmark signalings and immune components in TNBC. Clustering based on CAF markers in the literature revealed different CAF infiltration groups in TNBC: low, medium and high. Most of the cancer hallmark signaling pathways were enriched in the high CAF infiltration group. Furthermore, RNA sequencing and mass spectrometry identified biglycan (BGN), a soluble secreted protein, as upregulated in CAFs compared to normal cancer-adjacent fibroblasts (NAFs). The expression of biglycan was negatively correlated with CD8 + T cells. Biglycan indicated poor prognostic outcomes and might be correlated with the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). In conclusion, CAFs play an essential role in tumor progression and the TME. We identified an extracellular protein, biglycan, as a prognostic marker and potential therapeutic target in TNBC.

A Necessary Role for Increased Biglycan Expression during L1-Mediated Colon Cancer Progression

Aberrant activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling and downstream β-catenin-TCF target genes is a hallmark of colorectal cancer (CRC) development. We identified the immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion receptor L1CAM (L1) as a target of β-catenin-TCF transactivation in CRC cells. Overexpression of L1 in CRC cells confers enhanced proliferation, motility, tumorigenesis, and liver metastasis, and L1 is exclusively localized at invasive areas of human CRC tissue. Several genes are induced after L1 transfection into CRC cells by a mechanism involving the L1-ezrin-NF-κB pathway. We conducted a secretomic analysis of the proteins in the culture medium of L1-overexpressing CRC cells. We detected a highly increased level of biglycan, a small leucine-rich ECM component, and a signaling molecule. We found that induction of biglycan is required for the cellular processes conferred by L1, including enhanced proliferation, motility, tumorigenesis, and liver metastasis. The suppression of endogenous biglycan levels or a point mutation in the L1 ectodomain that regulates cell–cell adhesion mediated by L1 blocked the enhanced tumorigenic properties conferred by L1. The mechanism of biglycan induction by L1 involves the L1-NF-κB pathway. Blocking NF-κB signaling in L1 expressing cells suppressed the induction of biglycan and the tumorigenic properties conferred by L1. Biglycan expression was undetectable in the normal colonic mucosa, but expressed at highly increased levels in the tumor tissue, especially in the stroma. The therapeutic strategies to target biglycan expression might provide a useful approach for CRC treatment in L1-overexpressing tumors.

The Role of Decorin and Biglycan Signaling in Tumorigenesis

The complex and adaptive nature of malignant neoplasm constitute a major challenge for the development of effective anti-oncogenic therapies. Emerging evidence has uncovered the pivotal functions exerted by the small leucine-rich proteoglycans, decorin and biglycan, in affecting tumor growth and progression. In their soluble forms, decorin and biglycan act as powerful signaling molecules. By receptor-mediated signal transduction, both proteoglycans modulate key processes vital for tumor initiation and progression, such as autophagy, inflammation, cell-cycle, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. Despite of their structural homology, these two proteoglycans interact with distinct cell surface receptors and thus modulate distinct signaling pathways that ultimately affect cancer development. In this review, we summarize growing evidence for the complex roles of decorin and biglycan signaling in tumor biology and address potential novel therapeutic implications.

Epiphycan Predicts Poor Outcomes and Promotes Metastasis in Ovarian Cancer

The small leucine-rich proteoglycan (SLRP) family is widely expressed in extracellular matrix and aggravates tumor progression. However, epiphycan (EPYC), as a member of the SLRPs family, its biological function in cancer has not been confirmed. Thus, we aimed to clarify the role of EPYC in progression of ovarian cancer (OC), and further analyze the molecular mechanisms implicated in tumorigenesis. Here, we analyzed the differential expression genes of GSE38734, including 4 matched primary OC and metastatic tissues. We obtained OC RNAseqs data from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and analyzed the correlation between EPYC expression and OC staging, pathological grading, etc. The expression of EPYC in OC and normal ovarian tissues was compared in Oncomine website. We used siRNAs to interfere the expression of EPYC in ovarian cancer cell line SKOV3. Scratch test, transwell-matrigel chamber, CCK8 assay were used to detect the changes of SKOV3 migration, invasion and proliferation ability after EPYC was interfered. We used R software to make GO and KEGG analysis of related genes of EPYC. We used the Hitpredict website to predict interacting proteins. The results showed that the expression of EPYC in metastatic ovarian cancer was higher than primary ovarian cancer, and that in primary cancer was higher than normal ovaries. After siRNA interferes with EPYC expression, the migration, invasion and proliferation of SKOV3 cells were weakened. EPYC mainly played a role in ECM organization, and involved in PI3K/Akt, focal adhesion signaling pathways. EPYC might interact with PLCG2 and CRK, and be involved in signal transduction.

Biglycan: an emerging small leucine-rich proteoglycan (SLRP) marker and its clinicopathological significance

Extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important role in the structural organization of tissue and delivery of external cues to the cell. Biglycan, a class I small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRP), is a key component of the ECM that participates in scaffolding the collagen fibrils and mediates cell signaling. Dysregulation of biglycan expression can result in wide range of clinical conditions such as metabolic disorder, inflammatory disorder, musculoskeletal defects and malignancies. In this review, we aim to update our current understanding regarding the link between altered expression of biglycan and different clinicopathological states. Biglycan interacts with toll like receptors (TLR)-2 and TLR-4 on the immune cells which initiates inflammation and aggravates inflammatory disorders. ECM unbound soluble biglycan acts as a DAMP (danger associated molecular pattern) resulting in sterile inflammation. Dysregulation of biglycan expression is also observed in inflammatory metabolic conditions such as atherosclerosis and obesity. In cancer, high-biglycan expression facilitates tumor growth, invasion and metastasis which is associated with poor clinical outcome. As a pivotal structural component of the ECM, biglycan strengthens the musculoskeletal system and its absence is associated with musculoskeletal defects. Thus, SLRP biglycan is a potential marker which is significantly altered in different clinicopathological states.

Integration of Transcriptomics and Metabolomics to Reveal the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Rhodium Nanoparticles-Based Photodynamic Cancer Therapy

Rhodium nanoparticles have recently been described as promising photosensitizers due to their low toxicity in the absence of near-infrared irradiation, but their high cytotoxicity when irradiated. Irradiation is usually carried out with a laser source, which allows the treatment to be localized in a specific area, thus avoiding undesirable side effects on healthy tissues. In this study, a multi-omics approach based on the combination of microarray-based transcriptomics and mass spectrometry-based untargeted and targeted metabolomics has provided a global picture of the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-tumoral effect of rhodium nanoparticle-based photodynamic therapy. The results have shown the ability of these nanoparticles to promote apoptosis by suppressing or promoting anti- and pro-apoptotic factors, respectively, and by affecting the energy machinery of tumor cells, mainly blocking the β-oxidation, which is reflected in the accumulation of free fatty acids and in the decrease in ATP, ADP and NAD+ levels.

Personalized models of heterogeneous 3D epithelial tumor microenvironments: Ovarian cancer as a model

Intractable human diseases such as cancers, are context dependent, unique to both the individual patient and to the specific tumor microenvironment. However, conventional cancer treatments are often nonspecific, targeting global similarities rather than unique drivers. This limits treatment efficacy across heterogeneous patient populations and even at different tumor locations within the same patient. Ultimately, this poor efficacy can lead to adverse clinical outcomes and the development of treatment-resistant relapse. To prevent this and improve outcomes, it is necessary to be selective when choosing a patient's optimal adjuvant treatment. In this review, we posit the use of personalized, tumor-specific models (TSM) as tools to achieve this remarkable feat. First, using ovarian cancer as a model disease, we outline the heterogeneity and complexity of both the cellular and extracellular components in the tumor microenvironment. Then we examine the advantages and disadvantages of contemporary cancer models and the rationale for personalized TSM. We discuss how to generate precision 3D models through careful and detailed analysis of patient biopsies. Finally, we provide clinically relevant applications of these versatile personalized cancer models to highlight their potential impact. These models are ideal for a myriad of fundamental cancer biology and translational studies. Importantly, these approaches can be extended to other carcinomas, facilitating the discovery of new therapeutics that more effectively target the unique aspects of each individual patient's TME. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this article, we have presented the case for the application of biomaterials in developing personalized models of complex diseases such as cancers. TSM could bring about breakthroughs in the promise of precision medicine. The critical components of the diverse tumor microenvironments, that lead to treatment failures, include cellular- and extracellular matrix- heterogeneity, and biophysical signals to the cells. Therefore, we have described these dynamic components of the tumor microenvironments, and have highlighted how contemporary biomaterials can be utilized to create personalized in vitro models of cancers. We have also described the application of the TSM to predict the dynamic patterns of disease progression, and predict effective therapies that can produce durable responses, limit relapses, and treat any minimal residual disease.

Comprehensive Proteomic Analysis of Colon Cancer Tissue Revealed the Reason for the Worse Prognosis of Right-Sided Colon Cancer and Mucinous Colon Cancer at the Protein Level

To clarify the molecular mechanisms underlying the poor prognosis of right-sided and mucinous colon cancer at the proteomic level. A tandem mass tag-proteomics approach was used to identify differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in colon carcinoma tissues from different locations and with different histological types to reveal the underlying mechanisms of these differences at the protein level. In additional, the DEPs were analyzed using bioinformatics methods. The proteomics profiles among colon cancers with different tumor locations and histological types were dramatically distinguished. In terms of tumor locations, the right-sided carcinoma specific DEPs may promote the tumor progression via activating inflammation, metastasis associated pathways. When referring to histological types, the mucinous colon cancers perhaps increased the invasion and metastasis through distinct mechanisms in different tumor locations. For mucinous cancer located in right-sided colon, the mucinous specific DEPs were mainly associated with ECM-related remodeling and the IL-17 signal pathway. For mucinous cancer located in left-sided colon, the mucinous specific DEPs showed a strong relationship with ACE2/Ang-(1–7)/MasR axis. The proteomics profiles of colon cancers showed distinct differences related to locations and histological types. These results suggested a distinct mechanism underlying the diverse subtypes of colon cancers.

Mechanical Pressure Driving Proteoglycan Expression in Mammographic Density: a Self-perpetuating Cycle?

Regions of high mammographic density (MD) in the breast are characterised by a proteoglycan (PG)-rich fibrous stroma, where PGs mediate aligned collagen fibrils to control tissue stiffness and hence the response to mechanical forces. Literature is accumulating to support the notion that mechanical stiffness may drive PG synthesis in the breast contributing to MD. We review emerging patterns in MD and other biological settings, of a positive feedback cycle of force promoting PG synthesis, such as in articular cartilage, due to increased pressure on weight bearing joints. Furthermore, we present evidence to suggest a pro-tumorigenic effect of increased mechanical force on epithelial cells in contexts where PG-mediated, aligned collagen fibrous tissue abounds, with implications for breast cancer development attributable to high MD. Finally, we summarise means through which this positive feedback mechanism of PG synthesis may be intercepted to reduce mechanical force within tissues and thus reduce disease burden.

Identification and Validation of Biglycan as Prognosis and Therapy Markers for Patients with Stomach Adenocarcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have confirmed the biglycan (BGN) as a core gene in stomach adenocarcinoma (STAD). Present study aimed at conducting further investigations to reveal the potential function of BGN in STAD.

METHODS

The mRNA and protein expressions of BGN in STAD were firstly evaluated, followed by immune infiltration analyses. The influence of BGN expression on the overall survival of STAD patients was subsequently analyzed, and a restrict survival analysis was performed as well. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis on the co-expressed genes with BGN was finally adopted to obtain the most important module in the whole network, and significant Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway associated with hub genes within the main module was further predicted.

RESULTS

(1) We verified the mRNA high expression of BGN in STAD (all P<0.05), and higher expression was observed in patients with stage 4 (P<0.001) and grade 3 (P<0.001). The BGN protein was mainly localized to the golgi apparatus, and protein expression displayed an individual difference. (2) Immune infiltration analysis showed the strongest correlation between BGN expression and abundance of natural killer cell (P<0.001), Transforming Growth Factor beta 1 (TGFB1) (P<0.001), TNF Receptor Superfamily Member 4 (TNFRSF4) (P<0.001) and C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 12 (CXCL12) (P<0.001) in STAD. BGN expression was also correlated to immune subtypes (P=0.0347) and molecular subtypes (P=0.0263) in STAD. (3) High expression of BGN shortened the overall survival time of STAD patients (all P<0.01). The influence of BGN expression on the prognosis was statistically affected by several clinical phenotypes and cohorts of patients. Cox regression showed that BGN can be considered as a prognostic predictor of STAD (P<0.05). (4) Pathway analysis indicated that BGN possibly participated in ECM-receptor interaction, focal adhesion, human papillomavirus infection and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway (all P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

BGN was highly expressed in STAD, implying a poor prognosis of patients. Relevant signal pathways associated with BGN were distinguished as well. BGN could be used as a potential therapeutic biomarker for STAD.

The Extracellular Small Leucine-Rich Proteoglycan Biglycan Is a Key Player in Gastric Cancer Aggressiveness

Simple Summary

Approximately 80% of gastric cancer patients are diagnosed at advanced stages with an average five-year survival rate of less than 30%. Alterations of the extracellular matrix proteins have been largely demonstrated in all steps of the disease. Thus, studies for the identification of novel prognostic biomarkers and efficient therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. In this study, we report the oncogenic role of biglycan, an extracellular proteoglycan, in gastric carcinogenesis. Biglycan was able to modulate gastric cancer aggressive features as cell survival, migration, and angiogenesis. Additionally, high levels of biglycan expression correlates with tumorigenic gene signatures and they are associated with poor patient prognosis in advanced stages of the disease. These results point biglycan as a key player in gastric cancer aggressiveness and further studies should be done to investigate the therapeutic potential of biglycan to tackle gastric cancer progression.

Abstract

Biglycan (BGN gene), an extracellular proteoglycan, has been described to be associated with cancer aggressiveness. The purpose of this study was to clarify the clinical value of biglycan as a biomarker in multiple independent GC cohorts and determine the in vitro and in vivo role of biglycan in GC malignant features. We found that BGN is commonly over-expressed in all analyzed cohorts, being associated with disease relapse and poor prognosis in patients with advanced stages of disease. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that biglycan knock-out GC cells display major phenotypic changes with a lower cell survival, migration, and angiogenic potential when compared with biglycan expressing cells. Biglycan KO GC cells present increased levels of PARP1 and caspase-3 cleavage and a decreased expression of mesenchymal markers. Importantly, biglycan deficient GC cells that were supplemented with exogenous biglycan were able to restore biological features, such as survival, clonogenic and migratory capacities. Our in vitro and in vivo findings were validated in human GC samples, where BGN expression was associated with several oncogenic gene signatures that were associated with apoptosis, cell migration, invasion, and angiogenesis. This study provided new insights on biglycan role in GC that should be taken in consideration as a key cellular regulator with major impact in tumor progression and patients’ clinical outcome.

Synergistic potential of dual andrographolide and melatonin targeting of metastatic colon cancer cells: Using the Chou-Talalay combination index method

Colorectal cancer (CRC) mortality has diminished for decades due to new and improved treatment profiles. However, CRC still ranks as the third most diagnosed cancer in the US. Therefore, a new therapeutic approach is needed to overcome colospheroids inhibition and drug resistance. It is well documented that andrographolide (AGP) and melatonin (MLT) have anti-carcinogenic properties. Our goal was to evaluate their synergistic effects on metastatic colon cancer cells (mCRC) and colospheroids. HT-29 and HCT-15 mCRC cells were simultaneously treated with serial dilutions of AGP and MLT for 24, 48 and 72 h. Cell viability was monitored using the MTT assay. The Chou-Talalay method for drug combination is based on the median effect equation, providing a theoretical basis for the combination index and the isobologram equation. This allows quantitative determination of drug interactions using the CompuSyn software, where CI < 1, = 1, and >1 indicates synergistic, additive, and antagonistic effects respectively. Our results demonstrate that AGP and MLT in combination show synergism with CI values of 0.35293 and 0.34152 for HT-29 and HCT-15 respectively and a fractional inhibition of Fa = 0.50-0.90, as shown by the Fa-CI plot and isobologram. The synergism value was validated in colospheroids (HT-29-s and HCT-15-s) based on morphology, viability, and colony formation and in 5-FU drug resistant cell (HT-29R and HCT-116R) viability. The mechanism(s) of decreased cell viability are due to the induction of ER stress proteins and angiogenic inhibition. Our results provide rationale for using AGP in combination with MLT on mCRC.

BGN and COL11A1 Regulatory Network Analysis in Colorectal Cancer (CRC) Reveals That BGN Influences CRC Cell Biological Functions and Interacts with miR-6828-5p

Purpose

We explored specific expression profiles of BGN and COL11A1 genes and studied their biological functions in CRC using bioinformatics tools.

Patients and Methods

A total of 68 pairs of cancer and non-cancerous tissues from CRC patients were enrolled in this study. Methods we used in this articles including: qRT-PCR, Western blot analysis, ELISA, GO and KEGG regulatory network analysis, tumor infiltration, luciferase reporter-based protein and etc.

Results

According to The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data, BGN and COL11A1 expression levels were significantly higher in CRC patient samples than in samples from healthy controls. Moreover, levels were much higher in late-stage CRC than in early-stage disease, warranting evaluation of these genes as CRC prognostic biomarkers. Subsequently, qRT-PCR, Western blot analysis, and ELISA results obtained from analyses of CRC cells, tissues, and patient sera aligned with TCGA results. GO and KEGG regulatory network analysis revealed BGN- and COL11A1-associated genes that were functionally related to extracellular matrix (ECM) receptor pathway activation, with transcription factor genes RELA and NFKB1 positively associated with BGN expression and CEBPZ and SIRT1 with COL11A1 expression. Meanwhile, BGN and COL11A1 expression were separately and significantly correlated to tumor infiltration by six immune cell types. Additionally, kinase genes PLK1 and LYN appeared to be downstream targets of differentially expressed BGN and COL11A1, respectively. In addition, the expression of PLK1 mRNA was down-regulated while BGN was down-regulated. Finally, BGN effects on CRC cell proliferation, cycle, apoptosis, invasion, and migration were studied using molecular biological methods, including luciferase reporter-based protein analysis, qRT-PCR, and Western blot results, which revealed that miR-6828-5p may regulate BGN expression.

Conclusion

We speculate that the use of BGN and COL11A1 as CRC biomarkers would improve CRC staging, while also providing several novel targets for use in the development of more effective CRC treatments.

Identification and Validation of Potential Pathogenic Genes and Prognostic Markers in ESCC by Integrated Bioinformatics Analysis

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is one of the most fatal malignancies of the digestive tract, but its underlying molecular mechanisms are not known. We aim to identify the genes involved in ESCC carcinogenesis and discover potential prognostic markers using integrated bioinformatics analysis. Three pairs of ESCC tissues and paired normal tissues were sequenced by high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). Integrated bioinformatics analysis was used to identify differentially expressed coding genes (DECGs) and differentially expressed long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) genes (DELGs). A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of DECGs was established using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING) website and visualized with Cytoscape. Survival analysis was conducted by log-rank tests to identify "hub" genes with potential prognostic value, and real-time reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was conducted to assess expression of these genes in ESCC tissues. Transwell^TM assays were employed to examine the migration ability of cells after knockdown of LINC01614 expression, followed by investigation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by western blotting (WB). A total of 106 upregulated genes and 42 downregulated genes were screened out from the ESCC data sets. Survival analysis showed two hub protein-coding genes with higher expression in module 1 of the PPI network (SPP1 and BGN) and another three upregulated lncRNAs (LINC01614, LINC01415, NKILA) that were associated with a poor prognosis. High expression of SPP1, BGN, LINC01614, and LINC01415 in tumor samples was validated further by RT-qPCR. In vitro experiments show that knockdown of LINC01614 expression could significantly inhibit the migration of ESCC cells by regulating EMT, which was confirmed by WB. These results indicate that BGN, SPP1, LINC01614, and LINC01415 might be critical genes in ESCC and potential prognostic biomarkers.

NF-κB maintains the stemness of colon cancer cells by downregulating miR-195-5p/497-5p and upregulating MCM2

BACKGROUND

Colon cancer represents one of the leading causes of gastrointestinal tumors in industrialized countries, and its incidence appears to be increasing at an alarming rate. Accumulating evidence has unveiled the contributory roles of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in tumorigenicity, recurrence, and metastases. The functions of NF-kappa B (NF-κB) activation on cancer cell survival, including colon cancer cells have encouraged us to study the role of NF-κB in the maintenance of CSCs in colon cancer.

METHODS

Tumor samples and matched normal samples were obtained from 35 colon cancer cases. CSCs were isolated from human colon cancer cell lines, where the stemness of the cells was evaluated by cell viability, colony-forming, spheroid-forming, invasion, migration, and apoptosis assays. NF-κB activation was then performed in subcutaneous tumor models of CSCs by injecting lipopolysaccharides (LPS) i.p.

RESULTS

We found that NF-κB activation could reduce the expression of miR-195-5p and miR-497-5p, where these two miRNAs were determined to be downregulated in colon cancer tissues, cultured colon CSCs, and LPS-injected subcutaneous tumor models. Elevation of miR-195-5p and miR-497-5p levels by their specific mimic could ablate the effects of NF-κB on the stemness of colon cancer cells in vivo and in vitro, suggesting that NF-κB could maintain the stemness of colon cancer cells by downregulating miR-195-5p/497-5p. MCM2 was validated as the target gene of miR-195-5p and miR-497-5p in cultured colon CSCs. Overexpression of MCM2 was shown to restore the stemness of colon cancer cells in the presence of miR-195-5p and miR-497-5p, suggesting that miR-195-5p and miR-497-5p could impair the stemness of colon cancer cells by targeting MCM2 in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Our work demonstrates that the restoration of miR-195-5p and miR-497-5p may be a therapeutic strategy for colon cancer treatment in relation to NF-κB activation.

Therapy Resistance, Cancer Stem Cells and ECM in Cancer: The Matrix Reloaded

The extracellular matrix (ECM) has remained an enigmatic component of the tumor microenvironment. It drives metastasis via its interaction with the integrin signaling pathway, contributes to tumor progression and confers therapy resistance by providing a physical barrier around the tumor. The complexity of the ECM lies in its heterogeneous composition and complex glycosylation that can provide a support matrix as well as trigger oncogenic signaling pathways by interacting with the tumor cells. In this review, we attempt to dissect the role of the ECM in enriching for the treatment refractory cancer stem cell population and how it may be involved in regulating their metabolic needs. Additionally, we discuss how the ECM is instrumental in remodeling the tumor immune microenvironment and the potential ways to target this component in order to develop a viable therapy.

Cellular Mechanisms Accounting for the Refractoriness of Colorectal Carcinoma to Pharmacological Treatment

Simple Summary

Colorectal cancer (CRC) causes a high number (more than 800,000) of deaths worldwide each year. Better methods for early diagnosis and the development of strategies to enhance the efficacy of the therapeutic approaches used to complement or substitute surgical removal of the tumor are urgently needed. Currently available pharmacological armamentarium provides very moderate benefits to patients due to the high resistance of tumor cells to respond to anticancer drugs. The present review summarizes and classifies into seven groups the cellular and molecular mechanisms of chemoresistance (MOC) accounting for the failure of CRC response to the pharmacological treatment.

Abstract

The unsatisfactory response of colorectal cancer (CRC) to pharmacological treatment contributes to the substantial global health burden caused by this disease. Over the last few decades, CRC has become the cause of more than 800,000 deaths per year. The reason is a combination of two factors: (i) the late cancer detection, which is being partially solved by the implementation of mass screening of adults over age 50, permitting earlier diagnosis and treatment; (ii) the inadequate response of advanced unresectable tumors (i.e., stages III and IV) to pharmacological therapy. The latter is due to the existence of complex mechanisms of chemoresistance (MOCs) that interact and synergize with each other, rendering CRC cells strongly refractory to the available pharmacological regimens based on conventional chemotherapy, such as pyrimidine analogs (5-fluorouracil, capecitabine, trifluridine, and tipiracil), oxaliplatin, and irinotecan, as well as drugs targeted toward tyrosine kinase receptors (regorafenib, aflibercept, bevacizumab, cetuximab, panitumumab, and ramucirumab), and, more recently, immune checkpoint inhibitors (nivolumab, ipilimumab, and pembrolizumab). In the present review, we have inventoried the genes involved in the lack of CRC response to pharmacological treatment, classifying them into seven groups (from MOC-1 to MOC-7) according to functional criteria to identify cancer cell weaknesses. This classification will be useful to pave the way for developing sensitizing tools consisting of (i) new agents to be co-administered with the active drug; (ii) pharmacological approaches, such as drug encapsulation (e.g., into labeled liposomes or exosomes); (iii) gene therapy interventions aimed at restoring the impaired function of some proteins (e.g., uptake transporters and tumor suppressors) or abolishing that of others (such as export pumps and oncogenes).

Proteoglycans in the Pathogenesis of Hormone-Dependent Cancers: Mediators and Effectors

Hormone-dependent cancers exhibit high morbidity and mortality. In spite of advances in therapy, the treatment of hormone-dependent cancers remains an unmet health need. The tumor microenvironment (TME) exhibits unique characteristics that differ among various tumor types. It is composed of cancerous, non-cancerous, stromal, and immune cells that are surrounded and supported by components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Therefore, the interactions among cancer cells, stromal cells, and components of the ECM determine cancer progression and response to therapy. Proteoglycans (PGs), hybrid molecules consisting of a protein core to which sulfated glycosaminoglycan chains are bound, are significant components of the ECM that are implicated in all phases of tumorigenesis. These molecules, secreted by both the stroma and cancer cells, are crucial signaling mediators that modulate the vital cellular pathways implicated in gene expression, phenotypic versatility, and response to therapy in specific tumor types. A plethora of deregulated signaling pathways contributes to the growth, dissemination, and angiogenesis of hormone-dependent cancers. Specific inputs from the endocrine and immune systems are some of the characteristics of hormone-dependent cancer pathogenesis. Importantly, the mechanisms involved in various aspects of cancer progression are executed in the ECM niche of the TME, and the PG components crucially mediate these processes. Here, we comprehensively discuss the mechanisms through which PGs affect the multifaceted aspects of hormone-dependent cancer development and progression, including cancer metastasis, angiogenesis, immunobiology, autophagy, and response to therapy.

Roles of Proteoglycans and Glycosaminoglycans in Cancer Development and Progression

The extracellular matrix (ECM) spatiotemporally controls cell fate; however, dysregulation of ECM remodeling can lead to tumorigenesis and cancer development by providing favorable conditions for tumor cells. Proteoglycans (PGs) and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are the major macromolecules composing ECM. They influence both cell behavior and matrix properties through direct and indirect interactions with various cytokines, growth factors, cell surface receptors, adhesion molecules, enzymes, and glycoproteins within the ECM. The classical features of PGs/GAGs play well-known roles in cancer angiogenesis, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. Several lines of evidence suggest that PGs/GAGs critically affect broader aspects in cancer initiation and the progression process, including regulation of cell metabolism, serving as a sensor of ECM's mechanical properties, affecting immune supervision, and participating in therapeutic resistance to various forms of treatment. These functions may be implemented through the characteristics of PGs/GAGs as molecular bridges linking ECM and cells in cell-specific and context-specific manners within the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this review, we intend to present a comprehensive illustration of the ways in which PGs/GAGs participate in and regulate several aspects of tumorigenesis; we put forward a perspective regarding their effects as biomarkers or targets for diagnoses and therapeutic interventions.

MicroRNAs and colorectal cancer chemoresistance: New solution for old problem

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common gastrointestinal malignancies with a significant mortality rate. Despite the great advances in cancer treatment in the last few decades, effective treatment of CRC is still under challenge. One of the main problems associated with CRC treatment is the resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapy drugs.

METHODS

Many studies have been carried out to identify CRC chemoresistance mechanisms, and shed light on the role of ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters), enzymes as thymidylate synthase, some signaling pathways, and cancer stem cells (CSC) in chemoresistance and failed CRC chemotherapies. Other studies have also been recently carried out to find solutions to overcome chemoresistance. Some of these studies have identified the role of miRNAs in chemoresistance of the CRC cells and the effective use of these micro-molecules to CRC treatment.

RESULTS

Considering the results of these studies, more focus on miRNAs likely leads to a proper solution to overcome CRC chemoresistance.

CONCLUSION

The current study has reviewed the related literature while discussing the efficacy of miRNAs as potential clinical tools for overcoming CRC chemoresistance and reviewing the most important chemoresistance mechanisms in CRC cells.

Diabetes mellitus is associated with liver metastasis of colorectal cancer through production of biglycan-rich cancer stroma

High morbidity and mortality of cancer, especially colorectal cancer (CRC), in diabetic patients have been reported. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the presence of diabetes mellitus (blood hemoglobin A1C was 6.5% or higher at the time of diagnosis of CRC) and the progression and liver metastasis of CRC. Histopathological findings in the primary lesions, which were preferential to diabetes-complicated CRC (DM-CRC) and the liver metastasis, were also investigated. Of the 473 CRC patients who underwent curative surgical resection, 148 (31%) had diabetes. In DM-CRC cases, the stage was more advanced, with more cases in stage IV or postoperative disease recurrence. Histopathological findings correlated with liver metastasis in DM-CRC, including budding grade, perineural invasion, and myxomatous tumor stroma, and all were highly correlated with the stage. Additionally, myxomatous stroma showed the strongest correlation with liver metastasis in multivariate analysis. Myxomatous stroma in stage III cases correlated with liver recurrence. The myxomatous stroma was abundant in biglycan protein and contained numerous CD90-positive mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). In human colon cancer cell line HT29, biglycan expression was induced by high sugar concentration, fatty acids, and insulin, and its contact co-culture with MSCs resulted in enhanced stemness and epithelial-mesenchymal transition phenotype. Thus, DM-CRC has higher malignant phenotypes compared to non-DM-CRC, and the involvement of diabetes-induced biglycan may act as a pathogenic factor.

Lumican mediates HTB94 chondrosarcoma cell growth via an IGF‑IR/Erk1/2 axis

Chondrosarcoma is a malignant bone tumor characterized by the production of a modified cartilage-type extracellular matrix (ECM). In the present study, the expression levels of the small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs), decorin, biglycan and lumican, were examined in the HTB94 human chondrosarcoma cell line. HTB94 cells were found to express and secrete the 3 SLRP members. RT-qPCR and western blot analysis demonstrated that lumican was the most abundantly secreted SLRP, whereas decorin and biglycan expression levels were low. The utilization of short interfering RNA specific for the decorin, biglycan, and lumican genes resulted in the efficient downregulation of the respective mRNA levels (P≤0.001). The growth of the HTB94 cells was stimulated by lumican (P≤0.001), whereas their migration and adhesion were not affected (P=NS). By contrast, these cellular functions were not sensitive to a decrease in low endogenous levels of decorin and biglycan. Lumicandeficiency significantly inhibited both basal and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I)-induced HTB94 cell growth (P≤0.001 andP≤0.01, respectively). These effects were executed through the insulin-like growth factor I receptor (IGF-IR), whose activation was markedly attenuated (P≤0.01) in lumican-deficient HTB94 cells. The downregulation of lumican induced the substantial inhibition of extracellular regulated kinase (ERK1/2) activation (P≤ 0.01), indicating that ERK1/2 is a necessary component of lumican/IGF-IR-mediated HTB94 cell proliferation. Moreover, the lumican-deficient cells exhibit increased mRNA levels of p53 (P≤0.05), suggesting that lumican facilitates HTB94 cell growth through an IGF-IR/ERK1/2/p53 signaling cascade. On the whole, the findings of the present study demonstrate that endogenous lumican is a novel regulator of HTB94 cell growth.

Danger matrix molecules orchestrate CD14/CD44 signaling in cancer development

The tumor matrix together with inflammation and autophagy are crucial regulators of cancer development. Embedded in the tumor stroma are numerous proteoglycans which, in their soluble form, act as danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). By interacting with innate immune receptors, the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), DAMPs autonomously trigger aseptic inflammation and can regulate autophagy. Biglycan, a known danger proteoglycan, can regulate the cross-talk between inflammation and autophagy by evoking a switch between pro-inflammatory CD14 and pro-autophagic CD44 co-receptors for TLRs. Thus, these novel mechanistic insights provide some explanation for the plethora of reports indicating that the same matrix-derived DAMP acts either as a promoter or suppressor of tumor growth. In this review we will summarize and critically discuss the role of the matrix-derived DAMPs biglycan, hyaluronan, and versican in regulating the TLR-, CD14- and CD44-signaling dialogue between inflammation and autophagy with particular emphasis on cancer development.

The Epigenetic Profile of Tumor Endothelial Cells. Effects of Combined Therapy with Antiangiogenic and Epigenetic Drugs on Cancer Progression

Tumors require a constant supply of nutrients to grow which are provided through tumor blood vessels. To metastasize, tumors need a route to enter circulation, that route is also provided by tumor blood vessels. Thus, angiogenesis is necessary for both tumor progression and metastasis. Angiogenesis is tightly regulated by a balance of angiogenic and antiangiogenic factors. Angiogenic factors of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family lead to the activation of endothelial cells, proliferation, and neovascularization. Significant VEGF-A upregulation is commonly observed in cancer cells, also due to hypoxic conditions, and activates endothelial cells (ECs) by paracrine signaling stimulating cell migration and proliferation, resulting in tumor-dependent angiogenesis. Conversely, antiangiogenic factors inhibit angiogenesis by suppressing ECs activation. One of the best-known anti-angiogenic factors is thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1). In pathological angiogenesis, the balance shifts towards the proangiogenic factors and an angiogenic switch that promotes tumor angiogenesis. Here, we review the current literature supporting the notion of the existence of two different endothelial lineages: normal endothelial cells (NECs), representing the physiological form of vascular endothelium, and tumor endothelial cells (TECs), which are strongly promoted by the tumor microenvironment and are biologically different from NECs. The angiogenic switch would be also important for the explanation of the differences between NECs and TECs, as angiogenic factors, cytokines and growth factors secreted into the tumor microenvironment may cause genetic instability. In this review, we focus on the epigenetic differences between the two endothelial lineages, which provide a possible window for pharmacological targeting of TECs.

Biglycan as a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in multiple human cancers

Biglycan (BGN), a key member of the small leucine-rich proteoglycan family, is an important component of the extracellular matrix. Clinical studies have demonstrated that upregulation of BGN is associated with poor prognosis in patients with various types of solid cancer. The present study analyzed the mRNA expression levels of BGN in various types of solid cancer when compared with that in normal tissues via the Oncomine database. The UALCAN, OncoLnc and Kaplan-Meier Plotter databases were additionally used to evaluate the prognostic values of BGN in patients with solid cancer and co-expression gene analysis was conducted using the protein-protein interaction networks of BGN. The present study observed that the mRNA expression levels of BGN were increased in bladder, brain and central nervous system, breast, colorectal, esophageal, gastric, head and neck, lung, ovarian and 28 subtypes of cancer compared with normal tissues. The increased expression of BGN was identified to be associated with a poor outcome in ovarian and gastric cancer. Based on the co-expression network, BGN was identified as the key gene in a 43-gene network. The present findings of increased expression of BGN in solid tumors and its positive association with poor outcome on patient survival indicate that BGN may serve as a prognostic marker and as a target for novel therapeutics for multiple types of cancer.

BGN/TLR4/NF-B Mediates Epigenetic Silencing of Immunosuppressive Siglec Ligands in Colon Cancer Cells

Human Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling plays a vital role in intestinal inflammation by activating the NF-κB pathway. By querying GENT2 datasets, we identified the gene expression level of TLR2 and TLR4 as being substantially increased in colorectal cancer. Introduction of shRNAs for TLR4 but not TLR2 dramatically recovered disialyl Lewis^a and sialyl 6-sulfo Lewis^x glycans, which are preferentially expressed in non-malignant colonic epithelial cells and could serve as ligands for the immunosuppressive molecule Siglec-7. We screened several TLR4 ligands and found that among them BGN is highly expressed in cancers and is involved in the epigenetic silencing of Siglec-7 ligands. Suppression of BGN expression substantially downregulated NF-κB activity and the marker H3K27me3 in the promoter regions of the SLC26A2 and ST6GalNAc6 genes, which are involved in the synthesis of those glycans, and restored expression of normal glycans as well as Siglec-7 binding activities. We show that in the presence of TLR4, inflammatory stimuli initiate a positive loop involving NF-κB that activates BGN and further enhances TLR4 activity. Present findings indicate a putative mechanism for the promotion of carcinogenesis by loss of immunosuppressive ligands by the BGN/TLR4/ NF-κB pathway.

The Effect of Compound Sophora on Fluorouracil and Oxaliplatin Resistance in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Fluorouracil (5-FU) and oxaliplatin (L-OHP) are the most commonly used chemotherapy drugs for colorectal cancer, though resistance is common. Compound Sophora injection is a traditional Chinese medicine that can protect the liver against oxidation, improve immunity, and enhance sensitivity to chemotherapy; it may have an effect of reversing resistance in 5-FU- and L-OHP-resistant gastric cancer cells (5-FU/SW480 and L-OHP/SW480, respectively). A concentration gradient experiment was performed to identify a nontoxic dose of compound Sophora injection. 5-FU/SW480 and L-OHP/SW480 cells were treated with the nontoxic dose of compound radix Sophorae injection for 48 h, and changes in drug resistance to 5-FU and L-OHP were detected. Alterations in apoptosis and the cell cycle were assessed, as were the mRNA and protein levels of permeability glycoprotein (P-gp), annexin A1 (ANXA1), and ATP-binding cassette superfamily G member 2 (ABCG2). Flow cytometry showed a reduction in the number of cells in the G1 phase and an increase of cells in the S phase (P < 0.05). mRNA and protein expression of P-gp and ABCG2 was significantly higher in 5-FU/SW480 and L-OHP/SW480 cell lines, and ANXA1 expression decreased significantly (P < 0.05). Compound Sophora injection can reverse the drug resistance of 5-FU/SW480 and L-OHP/SW480 cell lines to 5-FU and L-OHP, respectively, possibly through a mechanism involving reduced expression of P-gp and ABCG2 but enhanced expression of ANXA1, which is the basis for the identification of clinical drug resistance in colorectal cancer.

Differential Actions of Estrogen Receptor α and β via Nongenomic Signaling in Human Prostate Stem and Progenitor Cells

Human prostate stem and progenitor cells express estrogen receptor (ER)α and ERβ and exhibit proliferative responses to estrogens. In this study, membrane-initiated estrogen signaling was interrogated in human prostate stem/progenitor cells enriched from primary epithelial cultures and stem-like cell lines from benign and cancerous prostates. Subcellular fractionation and proximity ligation assays localized ERα and ERβ to the cell membrane with caveolin-1 interactions. Exposure to 17β-estradiol (E2) for 15 to 60 minutes led to sequential phosphorylation of signaling molecules in MAPK and AKT pathways, IGF1 receptor, epidermal growth factor receptor, and ERα, thus documenting an intact membrane signalosome that activates diverse downstream cascades. Treatment with an E2-dendrimer conjugate or ICI 182,870 validated E2-mediated actions through membrane ERs. Overexpression and knockdown of ERα or ERβ in stem/progenitor cells identified pathway selectivity; ERα preferentially activated AKT, whereas ERβ selectively activated MAPK cascades. Furthermore, prostate cancer stem-like cells expressed only ERβ, and brief E2 exposure activated MAPK but not AKT cascades. A gene subset selectively regulated by nongenomic E2 signaling was identified in normal prostate progenitor cells that includes BGN, FOSB, FOXQ1, and MAF. Membrane-initiated E2 signaling rapidly modified histone methyltransferases, with MLL1 cleavage observed downstream of phosphorylated AKT and EZH2 phosphorylation downstream of MAPK signaling, which may jointly modify histones to permit rapid gene transcription. Taken together, the present findings document ERα and ERβ membrane-initiated signaling in normal and cancerous human prostate stem/progenitor cells with differential engagement of downstream effectors. These signaling pathways influence normal prostate stem/progenitor cell homeostasis and provide novel therapeutic sites to target the elusive prostate cancer stem cell population.

Identification of hub genes and construction of transcriptional regulatory network for the progression of colon adenocarcinoma hub genes and TF regulatory network of colon adenocarcinoma

The aim of this study was to identify key genes related to the progression of colon adenocarcinoma (COAD), and to investigate the regulatory network of hub genes and transcription factors (TFs). Dataset GSE20916 including 44 normal colon, 55 adenoma, and 36 adenocarcinoma tissue samples was used to construct co‐expression networks via weighted gene co‐expression network. Gene Ontology annotation and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis for the objective module were performed using the online Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery. Hub genes were identified by taking the intersection of differentially expressed genes between dataset GSE20916 and GSE39582 and validated using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. The correlations between microRNA (miRNA) and hub genes were analyzed using the online website StarBase. Cytoscape was used to establish a regulatory network of TF‐miRNA‐target gene. We found that the orange module was a key module related to the tumor progression in COAD. In datasets GSE20916 and GSE39582, a total of eight genes (BGN, SULF1, COL1A1, FAP, THBS2, CTHRC1, COL5A2, and COL1A2) were selected, which were closely related with patients’ survivals in TCGA database and dataset GSE20916. COAD patients with higher expressions of each hub gene had a worse prognosis than those with lower expressions. A regulatory network of TF‐miRNA‐target gene with 144 TFs, 26 miRNAs, and 7 hub genes was established, including model KLF11‐miR149‐BGN, TCEAL6‐miR29B2‐COL1A1, and TCEAL6‐miR29B2‐COL1A2. In conclusion, during the progression of COAD, eight core genes (BGN, SULF1, COL1A1, FAP, THBS2, CTHRC1, COL5A2, and COL1A2) play vital roles. Regulatory networks of TF‐miRNA‐target gene can help to understand the disease progression and optimize treatment strategy.

Overexpression of Biglycan is Associated with Resistance to Rapamycin in Human WERI-Rb-1 Retinoblastoma Cells by Inducing the Activation of the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases (PI3K)/Akt/Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) Signaling Pathway

Background

Biglycan (BGN) is an extracellular matrix (ECM) protein that regulates the growth of epithelial cells. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor, rapamycin, is a treatment for advanced retinoblastoma. This study aimed to investigate the effects of expression of BGN on the response of human WERI-Rb-1 retinoblastoma cells to rapamycin and to investigate the associated signaling pathways.

Material/Methods

BGN gene expression was induced in human WERI-Rb-1 retinoblastoma cells, which were incubated with rapamycin at doses of 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50 μg/ml. Cells were treated with the PI3K/Akt pathway inhibitor, LY294002. The MTT assay determined the rate of cell inhibition. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to measure BGN gene expression using RT²-PCR. Western blot detected the protein levels of BGN, p-PI3K, p-Akt, nuclear NF-κB, and p65.

Results

Rapamycin impaired cell growth, induced cell apoptosis, and suppressed the expression levels of p-PI3K, p-Akt, nuclear NF-κB, and p65. Overexpression of the BGN gene restored growth potential and inhibited apoptosis and was associated with the activation of the PI3K/Akt-mediated NF-κB pathway. In cells that overexpressed BGN, inhibition of the PI3K/Akt pathway by LY294002 increased the sensitivity of human WERI-Rb-1 retinoblastoma cells to rapamycin.

Conclusions

Overexpression of BGN induced rapamycin resistance in WERI-Rb-1 retinoblastoma cells by activating PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling.

Gene expression in stress urinary incontinence: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

A contribution of genetic factors to the development of stress urinary incontinence (SUI) is broadly acknowledged. This study aimed to: (1) provide insight into the genetic pathogenesis of SUI by gathering and synthesizing the available data from studies evaluating differential gene expression in SUI patients and (2) identify possible novel therapeutic targets and leads.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted through September 2017 for the concepts of genetics and SUI. Gene networking connections and gene-set functional analyses of the identified genes as differentially expressed in SUI were performed using GeneMANIA software.

RESULTS

Of 3019 studies, 4 were included in the final analysis. A total of 13 genes were identified as being differentially expressed in SUI patients. Eleven genes were overexpressed: skin-derived antileukoproteinase (SKALP/elafin), collagen type XVII alpha 1 chain (COL17A1), plakophilin 1 (PKP1), keratin 16 (KRT16), decorin (DCN), biglycan (BGN), protein bicaudal D homolog 2 (BICD2), growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (GRB2), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), apolipoprotein E (APOE), and Golgi SNAP receptor complex member 1 (GOSR1), while two genes were underexpressed: fibromodulin (FMOD) and glucocerebrosidase (GBA). GeneMANIA revealed that these genes are involved in intermediate filament cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix organization.

CONCLUSION

Many genes are involved in the pathogenesis of SUI. Furthermore, whole-genome studies are warranted to identify these genetic connections. This study lays the groundwork for future research and the development of novel therapies and SUI biomarkers in clinical practice.

The Role of the Extracellular Matrix in Cancer Stemness

As our understanding of cancer cell biology progresses, it has become clear that tumors are a heterogenous mixture of different cell populations, some of which contain so called "cancer stem cells" (CSCs). Hallmarks of CSCs include self-renewing capability, tumor-initiating capacity and chemoresistance. The extracellular matrix (ECM), a major structural component of the tumor microenvironment, is a highly dynamic structure and increasing evidence suggests that ECM proteins establish a physical and biochemical niche for CSCs. In cancer, abnormal ECM dynamics occur due to disrupted balance between ECM synthesis and secretion and altered expression of matrix-remodeling enzymes. Tumor-derived ECM is biochemically distinct in its composition and is stiffer compared to normal ECM. In this review, we will provide a brief overview of how different components of the ECM modulate CSC properties then discuss how physical, mechanical, and biochemical cues from the ECM drive cancer stemness. Given the fact that current CSC targeting therapies face many challenges, a better understanding of CSC-ECM interactions will be crucial to identify more effective therapeutic strategies to eliminate CSCs.

Quantitative Proteomic Analysis and Evaluation of the Potential Prognostic Biomarkers in Cholangiocarcinoma

Background & Aims: Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) patients have poor outcomes since the late diagnosis limits the benefits of surgery therapy and curative treatment options. The present study was designed to screen the biomarkers for CCA patients. Methods: Quantitative iTRAQ proteomic analysis was used to identify differentially expressed proteins between CCA and pericarcineous tissue. We examined the expression profile of PRDX2, BGN, LUM, and PPP3CA in CCA tissue using immunohistochemistry. We further investigated the correlation between PPP3CA expression and the survival of CCA patients (n=91). Results: 2,886 confidential proteins were identified by using the iTRAQ technique, 233 of which were differentially expressed. PRDX2, BGN, PPP3CA, and LUM were expressed in CCA tissue, whereas they were not expressed in choledocal cyst tissue except for LUM. PPP3CA was expressed in the cytoplasm of carcinoma cells in 22 cases (24.2%) of 91 CCA patients. Patients with PPP3CA-positive expression showed a significantly shorter survival period than did non-expressing patients (P = 0.030). The univariate analysis showed that tumor size (P = 0.002), vascular invasion (P = 0.001), histological grading (P = 0.011), and PPP3CA expression (P = 0.033) were statistically significant risk factors affecting the prognosis of CCA patients. The multivariate analysis demonstrated PPP3CA expression (P = 0.009) and vascular invasion (P = 0.012) were statistically significant independent risk factors of CCA patients. Conclusions: The results suggested that the expression of PPP3CA in CCA patients is a new independent factor for poor prognosis and a useful prognostic predictor for patients with CCA.

SIRT6 abrogation promotes adrenocortical carcinoma through activation of NF-κB signaling

As an uncommon malignancy in the adrenal gland, adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is characterized by thorny diagnosis and poor clinical outcome, necessitating innovative treatment strategies. Sirtuin 6 (SIRT6), a tumor suppressor, modulates aerobic glycolysis of malignant cells and has an impact on tumorigenesis. This study focused on investigating SIRT6 expression in ACC and how it generates cancer phenotypes. SIRT6 expression was inhibited in ACC tissues according to western blotting, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemistry. MTT assay, TUNEL assay, and flow cytometry were performed to evaluate the contribution of SIRT6 to cell invasion, proliferation, death, and migration. It was shown that SIRT6 knockdown promoted cell invasion, proliferation, and migration, and inhibited cell death. Moreover, it was found that SIRT6 knockdown upregulated TLR4 and reinforced phosphorylation of the nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-κB) subunit p65 as well as inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase. Additionally, SIRT6 knockdown significantly enhanced expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide as well as transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype 1. It also reinforced reactive oxygen species generation. Overall, our research findings demonstrate that SIRT6 serves as a tumor suppressor via regulation of the NF-κB pathway, which could offer an innovative strategy to treat ACC.