Autonomous and controlled reasons underlying achievement goals: Implications for the 3 × 2 achievement goal model in educational and work settings

The 3 × 2 Achievement Goals in the Education, Sport, and Occupation Literatures: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Achievement goal theory has been a dominant motivation framework since the 1980s. The 3 × 2 achievement goal framework emerged in the literature in 2011. We aimed to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis following the PRISMA guidelines of the 3 × 2 achievement goal research in education, sport, and occupation settings. We retrieved articles from searching EBSCOhost and Google Scholar platforms. Eligible articles contained the 3 × 2 achievement goal in education, sport, or occupation, were published in a peer-reviewed journal, and provided mean data or correlate data. We tested hypotheses concerned with (1) the overall pattern of achievement goal endorsement, (2) achievement goal differences by domain (education, sport) and compulsory nature of the domains or sub-domains, and (3) achievement goal relationships with correlates (e.g., learning strategies, motivations, performance). After screening, 56 articles met all inclusion criteria, providing 58 samples across education (n = 44), sport (n = 10), and occupation (n = 4) settings with 35,031 unique participants from 15 countries. Participants endorsed the task- and self-approach goals more than the counterpart avoidance goals, other-avoidance goals more than other-approach goals, and the intercorrelations and reliability coefficients were acceptable. Minimal impact results from examining within and across study bias statistics. Of importance, the domain (i.e., education, sport) and the compulsory nature of the domain or sub-domains (i.e., primary-secondary education, sport) moderated goal endorsement (group mixed-effects p < 0.05, g values medium to very large). These groupings also moderated the other goal differences. Concerning our correlates analyses, most meta-analyzed correlations among the achievement goals and correlates were small in meaningfulness with the largest correlations (0.30-0.42) between the approach goals merged and the task- and self-approach goals and facilitative learning strategies and desired motivations. In conclusion, the 3 × 2 achievement goals literature is diverse. Furthering the study and application of this model requires overcoming inherent limitations (i.e., consistent response scale sets), teasing out differences between the task- and self-goals, measuring performance outcomes, and cross-cultural collaborations.

Effects of achievement goals on learning interests and mathematics performances for kindergarteners

Background

Studies have investigated the effects of achievement goals on learning interests and mathematics performance above the elementary-school level. However, few studies have explored this topic among kindergarteners based on sound theoretical frameworks.

Methods

Through the enrollment of 15 kindergarten teachers and 180 kindergarteners, this study re-validated newly developed measurements of kindergarteners' achievement goals and learning interests and used these measures to further clarify the effects of achievement goals on learning interests and mathematics performances using structural equation modeling.

Results

The results indicate that (1) task-approach goals have positive effects on situational interest and advanced arithmetic performance, whereas task-avoidance goals have positive effects on individual interest. (2) Self-based goals have null effects on most learning interests and mathematics performance, but they have significant negative effects on numbering and counting performance. However, most of these null effects represent negative tendencies. (3) Other-approach goals have positive effects on situational interest and basic arithmetic performance, whereas other-avoidance goals have null effects on these outcomes but have an almost significant positive effect on numbering and counting performance. (4) Task-based goals and self-approach goals are generally beneficial for learning interests and mathematics performance.

Conclusion

These results suggest that task-based goals and other-approach goals may be implemented with consideration of the potential long-term detrimental effects of social comparison on learning outcomes. Furthermore, possible negative effects of self-based goals must be monitored to prevent them from undermining learning outcomes. This study revealed consistent, inconsistent, and new evidence that, respectively, verifies, complements, and contradicts findings on the learning outcomes of students above the elementary-school level.

Changes in basic psychological needs, passion, and well-being of first-semester graduate students

OBJECTIVE

Examine changes in graduate student health and well-being in the first semester.

PARTICIPANTS

Full-time, first-semester graduate students (N = 74) from a midsized midwestern university.

METHOD

Graduate students were surveyed prior to starting their master's program and 10 weeks later. Passion for academics, basic psychological needs, physical and mental health symptoms, positive and negative affects, and quality of life were assessed.

RESULTS

Need satisfaction, harmonious passion, and indicators of well-being decreased across the first semester, whereas need frustration and indicators of ill-being increased over the first semester. Obsessive passion, harmonious passion, need satisfaction, and need frustration were associated with students' well-being at the end of the semester, with need frustration being the most robust predictor.

CONCLUSIONS

Although most graduate students reported good general health and moderately low mental health symptoms, findings suggest that a need supportive environment may contribute to better health and well-being.

Investigating the Discriminant Utility of Task-Based and Self-Based Goals in 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Model for Kindergarteners

A decade ago, achievement goal theorists argued that mastery-based goals in the traditional theoretical framework can be theoretically differentiated into task-based goals and self-based goals; and they proposed the 3 × 2 achievement goal model to understand students' achievement motivation. This new theoretical model has received increasing attention, and it has been demonstrated by several empirical studies on school-aged student samples through analyzing concurrently derived data. Recently, researcher has preliminary demonstrated the new theoretical model on kindergarten sample. It is unclear whether there was a discriminant utility of these goals for kindergartener sample through analyzing their concurrent and predictive effects on learning outcomes. The main purposes of this study were to investigate discriminant utility of task-based goals and self-based goals through examining their concurrent and predictive effects on mathematics performances. A total of 59 kindergarteners aged 5 years consented to participating in this study. Results showed: (1) The discriminant utility of task-approach goal and self-approach goal was only demonstrated on predictive arithmetic performance. (2) The discriminant utility of task-avoidance goal and self-avoidance goal was demonstrated on both concurrent and predictive counting performances. Implications for advancing achievement goal theory, future research, and practice are discussed at the end of the article.

Relationships Between Achievement Goal Orientations, Learning Engagement, and Academic Adjustment in Freshmen: Variable-Centered and Person-Centered Approaches

Academic adjustment is a principal determining factor of undergraduate students' academic achievement and success. However, studies pay little attention to freshmen's antecedent variables of academic adjustment. This study aimed to examine the mechanisms underlying the relationship between achievement goal orientations and academic adjustment in freshmen using variable- and person-centered approaches. A sample of 578 freshmen (aged 18.29±1.04years, 58.5% female) completed questionnaires on achievement goal orientations, learning engagement, and academic adjustment. Latent profile analysis of achievement goal orientations revealed four groups: low-motivation (11.1%), approach-oriented (9.5%), average (52.8%), and multiple (26.6%). In the mediating analysis, results of the variable-centered approach showed that learning engagement mediated the effects of the mastery-approach and performance-avoidance goals on academic adjustment. For the person-centered approach, we selected the average type as the reference profile, and the analysis revealed that compared with the reference profile, learning engagement partially mediated the link between the approach-oriented profile and academic adjustment. The current study highlights the important role that achievement goal orientations and learning engagement play in academic adjustment. We discuss the implications and limitations of the findings.

University Teachers' Teaching Style and Their Students' Agentic Engagement in EFL Learning in China: A Self-Determination Theory and Achievement Goal Theory Integrated Perspective

As a relatively new dimension of student engagement, agentic engagement has received growing research interest in recent years, as it not only predicts academic achievement and other positive outcomes, but also benefits reciprocal teacher-student relations. In the educational context, teachers' teaching style exerts a crucial impact on students' engagement. However, research on how perceived teachers' teaching style influences students' agentic engagement is inconclusive. To address this lacuna, this study, taking an integrated perspective that draws on Self-determination Theory and Achievement Goal Theory, investigated the relationship of three types of teaching style (i.e., perceived autonomy support, social relatedness, and controlling) to university students' agentic engagement in EFL learning in China, especially through the mediation of mastery-approach goals and performance approach goals. Structural equation modeling showed that perceived autonomy support positively predicted agentic engagement through the mediation of mastery-approach goals, whereas perceived controlling negatively predicted agentic engagement through the mediation of performance-approach goals. Comparatively, the relationship of perceived social relatedness to agentic engagement was fully mediated by both mastery-approach and performance-approach goals. After discussing these results, practical implications as well as suggestions for future studies were given.

Goal Motives and Well-Being in Student-Athletes: A Person-Centered Approach

Using a person-centered approach, the aim of this study was to examine how student-athletes' motives for multiple-goal pursuit relate to indices of well- and ill-being. Student-athletes (N = 362) from British universities identified the most important sporting and academic goals that they were pursuing over the academic year. The participants rated their extrinsic, introjected, identified, and intrinsic goal motives for each goal and completed measures of well- and ill-being. Latent profile analysis revealed six distinct profiles of goal motives, with variations in both the strength of motives and the motivational quality. Follow-up analyses revealed between-profile differences for well- and ill-being; students with more optimal goal motive profiles reported higher and lower well- and ill-being, respectively, than those with less optimal goal motives. To experience well-being benefits when pursuing multiple goals, student-athletes should strive for their academic and sporting goals with high autonomous and low controlled goal motives.

Psychometric Properties of Achievement Goal Constructs for Chinese Students

In Chinese schools, classes are organized with special monitors and teachers contributing to the achievement goal structure for students. This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of perception of teachers' achievement goal structure constructs with 3,149 Chinese students from grades 3-8. The results showed that the internal consistencies of the whole scale and subscales were low to marginal. Eight models were examined to check the constructs of the achievement goal structure (mastery, performance, and performance avoidance). Two-factor structures proved to be the best fit. Additionally, a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis proved that the achievement goal structure existed at the same time in the class student levels. Our findings supported the hypothesis that achievement goal structures are different for students with different cultures, which implies that teaching approaches should be adapted in consideration of culturally distinct learning.

Meta-cognitive behaviour and mathematical modelling competency: mediating effect of performance goals

Guided by a model promoted by Biccard and Wessels (2011) and empirical evidence, this work aims to examine a model that includes meta-cognitive behaviour and mathematical modelling competency with the indirect effects of two performance goal sub-constructs, namely, other-approach and other-avoidance goals. The study investigates the correlation between meta-cognitive behaviour and performance goals that may affect mathematical modelling competency. A total of 538 mathematics education programme students (89.8% female and 10.2% male) in Indonesia are considered. A correlational study is performed to examine the level of the link amongst mathematical modelling competency, performance goals and meta-cognitive behaviour. Results show that meta-cognitive behaviour positively affects mathematical modelling competency, but no significant direct relationship is observed between performance goals and mathematical modelling competency. Furthermore, other-approach and other-avoidance goals are significant mediators between meta-cognitive behaviour and mathematical modelling competency. We conclude that meta-cognitive behaviour positively influences the mathematical modelling competency of students, which is unaffected by other-approach and other-avoidance goals.

Effects of motivation and workload on firefighters' perceived health, stress, and performance

This study investigated the effects of autonomous and controlled motivations, and workload on perceived stress, health, and performance. Workload was also considered as a moderator of the effects of autonomous motivation on perceived health and performance and of controlled motivation on perceived stress. We conducted an empirical study using a sample of 654 firefighters. Consistent with our predictions, results showed positive effects of autonomous motivation and negative effects of workload and controlled motivation on perceived health and performance. They also revealed positive effects of controlled motivation and workload and negative effects of autonomous motivation on perceived stress. Moreover, workload moderated the relations between autonomous motivation and perceived health and performance, so that the positive relations between autonomous motivation and perceived health and performance were lower when workload was high. Finally, workload moderated the relation between controlled motivation and perceived stress so that the positive relation between controlled motivation and perceived stress was stronger when workload was high. Theoretical contributions and perspectives, as well as implications for practice, are discussed.

Roles of metacognition and achievement goals in mathematical modeling competency: A structural equation modeling analysis

This study investigates the relationship between metacognition and achievement goals which may influence mathematical modeling competency in students of mathematics education programs. The current study employs 538 students of mathematics education program; 483 (89.8%) of whom are male and 55 (10.2%) are aged from 18 years old to 22 years old. The study follows a correlational research design to investigate and measure the degree of relationship amongst mathematical modeling competencies, achievement goals and metacognition. Results indicate that achievement goals and metacognition positively influence mathematical modeling competency. Moreover, four metacognition dimensions including awareness, planning, cognitive strategy and self-checking are positive partial mediators because they increase the association between achievement goals and mathematical modeling competency. In conclusion, metacognition and achievement goals positively affect students’ mathematical modeling competency.

‘Why do I study and what do I want to achieve by studying?’ Understanding the reasons and the aims of student engagement

This study seeks to understand the ‘what’ and the ‘why’ of student engagement by investigating the ‘aims’ that students pursue through engagement (i.e., their achievement goals) and the ‘reasons’ driving such engagement (i.e., their motivation). Self-report instruments measuring students’ motivational reasons, achievement goals, and engagement in the context of their mathematics classes were administered to a sample of 491 Singapore elementary students (54% girls; Mage = 11 years). Mediational path analysis showed that achievement goals, collectively, played a significant mediating role in almost all the links connecting motivational reasons to different engagement outcomes. Specifically, whilst autonomous motivation (AM) was associated with greater effort/persistence, heightened elaboration, and lower anxiety, controlled motivation (CM) was associated with higher anxiety. Although self-based goals strengthened the positive direct effects of AM on effort/persistence and elaboration, and channeled the adaptive effects of CM on these two engagement outcomes, this goal type also heightened the effect of CM on anxiety and cancelled out the benefits of AM in reducing anxiety. Taken together, findings pointed to the more adaptive role of AM relative to CM, and the apparently double-edged-sword effects of self-based goals on student engagement. Key findings and their implications for teaching and school psychology practices are discussed.

Achievement Goals and their Underlying Goal Motivation: Does it Matter Why Sport Participants Pursue their Goals?

This study examined whether the good or bad outcomes associated with mastery-approach (MAP) and performance-approach (PAP) goals depend on the extent to which they are motivated by autonomous or controlled motivation. A sample of 515 undergraduate students who participated in sport completed measures of achievement goals, motivation of achievement goals, perceived goal attainment, sport satisfaction, and both positive and negative affect. Results of moderated regression analyses revealed that the positive relations of both MAP and PAP goals with perceived goal attainment were stronger for athletes pursuing these goals with high level of autonomous goal motivation. Also, the positive relations between PAP goals and both sport satisfaction and positive affect were stronger at high levels of autonomous goal motivation and controlled goal motivation. The shape of all these significant interactions was consistent with tenets of Self-Determination Theory as controlled goal motivation was negatively associated with positive affect and sport satisfaction and positively associated with negative affect. Overall, these findings demonstrated the importance of considering goal motivation in order to better understand the conditions under which achievement goals are associated with better experiential and performance outcomes in the lives of sport participants.

The effects of initial participation motivations on learning engagement in transition training for future general practitioners in rural China: perceived deterrents as mediator

BACKGROUND

For the shortage of high-quality general practitioners (GPs) in China's rural areas, Chinese government has taken steps to encourage rural specialists to participate in transition training for future GPs. Specialists' initial participation motivations and their perceived deterrents during training may play important roles for their learning engagement in the transition training. This study aimed at revealing the relationships among the variables of initial participation motivations, perceived deterrents in training, and learning engagement.

METHODS

A questionnaire survey was used in this study. A total of 156 rural specialists who participated in transition training for future GPs filled out the questionnaire, which consisted of the measurements of initial participation motivations, perceived deterrents, and learning engagement in training. The data about specialists' demographic variables were collected at the same time.

RESULTS

The variance of initial escape/stimulations motivation significantly predicted the variance of learning engagement through the full mediating role of perceived deterrents in training. In addition, initial educational preparation motivations predicted the variance of learning engagement directly.

CONCLUSIONS

Specialists' initial participation motivations and perceived deterrents in training played important roles for learning engagement in the transition training.

Students' Achievement Goals, Learning-Related Emotions and Academic Achievement

In the present research, the recently proposed 3 × 2 model of achievement goals is tested and associations with achievement emotions and their joint influence on academic achievement are investigated. The study was conducted with 388 students using the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire including the six proposed goal constructs (task-approach, task-avoidance, self-approach, self-avoidance, other-approach, other-avoidance) and the enjoyment and boredom scales from the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire. Exam grades were used as an indicator of academic achievement. Findings from CFAs provided strong support for the proposed structure of the 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Self-based goals, other-based goals and task-approach goals predicted enjoyment. Task-approach goals negatively predicted boredom. Task-approach and other-approach predicted achievement. The indirect effects of achievement goals through emotion variables on achievement were assessed using bias-corrected bootstrapping. No mediation effects were found. Implications for educational practice are discussed.