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Chance R, Kang AS. Eukaryotic ribosome display for antibody discovery: A review. Hum Antibodies 2024:HAB240001. [PMID: 38788063 DOI: 10.3233/hab-240001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibody biologics have significantly transformed the therapeutic landscape within the biopharmaceutical industry, partly due to the utilisation of discovery technologies such as the hybridoma method and phage display. While these established platforms have streamlined the development process to date, their reliance on cell transformation for antibody identification faces limitations related to library diversification and the constraints of host cell physiology. Cell-free systems like ribosome display offer a complementary approach, enabling antibody selection in a completely in vitro setting while harnessing enriched cellular molecular machinery. This review aims to provide an overview of the fundamental principles underlying the ribosome display method and its potential for advancing antibody discovery and development.
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Farahani MS, Hosseini-Beheshti E, Moazzeni SM, Moghadam MF. Engineered extracellular vesicles expressing ICAM-1: A promising targeted delivery system for T cell modifications. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2024; 1868:130541. [PMID: 38103755 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2023.130541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are natural nano-carriers that possess the required crucial features of an ideal biomolecular delivery system. However, using unmodified EVs may have some limitations such as low accumulation in target sites. Studies have established that engineering EVs against different cell surface markers can overcome most of these hurdles. METHODS In this study, engineered EVs expressing ICAM-1/LAMP2b fusion protein on their surfaces were produced and isolated. The uptake of isolated targeted and non-targeted EVs was evaluated by imaging and flow cytometry. To assess the ability of targeted EVs to be applied as a safe carrier, pAAVS1-Puro-GFP plasmids were encapsulated into EVs by electroporation. RESULTS The HEKT 293 cell line was successfully modified permanently by a lentiviral vector to express ICAM-1 on the surface of the derived EVs. The ELISA and western blot tests established the binding affinity of targeted EVs for recombinant LFA-1 with a remarkable difference from non-targeted EVs. Furthermore, flow cytometry results revealed noteworthy differences in the binding of LFA-1-positive, non-targeted EVs, and targeted EVs to LFA-1-negative cells. Finally, imaging and flow cytometry indicated that newly produced EVs could efficiently interact with T cells and functionally deliver loaded plasmids to them. CONCLUSION These LFA-1-targeted EVs were able to interact with T cells as their recipient cells. They can be utilized as an ideal delivery system to transfer various biomolecules to T cells, facilitating immunotherapies or other cell-based treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahboube Shahrabi Farahani
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medical Science, Tarbiat Modares University, P.O.Box: 14115-331, I.R, Jalal ale Ahmad Highway, Tehran, Iran.
| | | | - Seyed Mohammad Moazzeni
- Department of Medical Immunology, Faculty of Medical Science, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mehdi Forouzandeh Moghadam
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medical Science, Tarbiat Modares University, P.O.Box: 14115-331, I.R, Jalal ale Ahmad Highway, Tehran, Iran.
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Ghani S, Bandehpour M, Yarian F, Baghaei K, Kazemi B. Production of a Ribosome-Displayed Mouse scFv Antibody Against CD133, Analysis of Its Molecular Docking, and Molecular Dynamic Simulations of Their Interactions. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2024; 196:1399-1418. [PMID: 37410352 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-023-04609-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
The pentaspan transmembrane glycoprotein CD133, prominin-1, is expressed in cancer stem cells in many tumors and is promising as a novel target for the delivery of cytotoxic drugs to cancer-initiating cells. In this study, we prepared a mouse library of single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibodies using mRNAs isolated from mice immunized with the third extracellular domain of a recombinant CD133 (D-EC3). First, the scFvs were directly exposed to D-EC3 to select a new specific scFv with high affinity against CD133 using the ribosome display method. Then, the selected scFv was characterized by the indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunocytochemistry (ICC), and in silico analyses included molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Based on ELISA results, scFv 2 had a higher affinity for recombinant CD133, and it was considered for further analysis. Next, the immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry experiments confirmed that the obtained scFv could bind to the CD133 expressing HT-29 cells. Furthermore, the results of in silico analysis verified the ability of the scFv 2 antibody to bind and detect the D-EC3 antigen through key residues employed in antigen-antibody interactions. Our results suggest that ribosome display could be applied as a rapid and valid method for isolation of scFv with high affinity and specificity. Also, studying the mechanism of interaction between CD133's scFv and D-EC3 with two approaches of experimental and in silico analysis has potential importance for the design and development of antibody with improved properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepideh Ghani
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mojgan Bandehpour
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Fatemeh Yarian
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran.
| | - Kaveh Baghaei
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahram Kazemi
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Shen J, Cao J, Chen M, Zhang Y. Recent advances in the role of exosomes in liver fibrosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2023. [PMID: 37114594 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.16203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM We aim to summarize the current status of research on the role of exosomes in liver fibrosis. METHODS A review of the relevant literature was performed and the key findings were presented. RESULTS Most studies focused on the role of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells, other types of stem cells, and liver resident cells including hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, and hepatic stellate cells in liver fibrosis. Exosomes have been reported to play an essential role in the inactivation or activation of hepatic stellate cells through the delivery of non-coding RNAs and proteins. In recent years, this exosome cargo has become a research hotspot. CONCLUSIONS Recent studies have indicated the potential therapeutic benefit of exosomes in liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiliang Shen
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiasheng Cao
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Mingyu Chen
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yaping Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
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Valadan R, Dabiri M, Tehrani M, Hashemi Tabar G, Rafiei A. A cell-based subtractive panning strategy for selection of conformation-specific single-chain variable-fragment (scFv) against dimerization domain of EGFR. J Immunol Methods 2023; 515:113456. [PMID: 36898519 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2023.113456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Overexpression of EGFR, a member of the ErbB receptor family, has been observed in several cancers and causes resistance to therapeutic antibodies, such as Herceptin. In this study, we produced a recombinant single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibody against the EGFR dimerization domain. METHODS The recombinant scFv was generated using a cell-based subtractive panning strategy. Subtractive panning was performed on a genetically engineered, VERO/EGFR, cells as well as a triple-negative breast cancer, MDA-MB-468, cells. Phage cell-ELISA was used to monitor the binding of the selected scFvs to the dimerization domain of EGFR. Inhibition of EGFR and HER2 dimerization by the produced scFvs were finally evaluated using the dimerization inhibition test and the expression of apoptosis-related genes were measured using the quantitative RT-PCR. RESULTS PCR fingerprinting results showed a uniform digestion pattern following the third round of panning that confirmed the success of subtractive panning. Moreover, cell-ELISA validated the reactivity of the produced scFvs to EGFR following stimulation with EGF. Dimerization inhibition test showed the capacity of the scFvs to inhibit EGFR and HER2 dimerization. Investigation of apoptosis-related genes showed that treatment with the scFv antibody caused increased Bax and decreased Bcl2 expression. CONCLUSIONS Directed HER2 targeting was shown to be effective enough to block the functional domain of the cell receptor and its intracellular signaling pathway. The subtractive panning strategy used in this study could control the process of directed selection of specific antibodies against the dimerization domain of EGFR. Selected antibodies might then be functionally tested for antitumor effects in both in vitro and in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reza Valadan
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.; Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center (MCBRC), School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mina Dabiri
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.; Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center (MCBRC), School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mohsen Tehrani
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.; Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center (MCBRC), School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Hashemi Tabar
- Research Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Alireza Rafiei
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran.; Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center (MCBRC), School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran..
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Hu M, Chong R, Liu W, Liu S, Liu X. Characteristic of molecular subtype based on lysosome-associated genes reveals clinical prognosis and immune infiltration of gastric cancer. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1155418. [PMID: 37197421 PMCID: PMC10183605 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1155418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Lysosome are involved in nutrient sensing, cell signaling, cell death, immune responses and cell metabolism, which play an important role in the initiation and development of multiple tumors. However, the biological function of lysosome in gastric cancer (GC) has not been revealed. Here, we aim to screen lysosome-associated genes and established a corresponding prognostic risk signature for GC, then explore the role and underlying mechanisms. Methods The lysosome-associated genes (LYAGs) were obtained from MSigDB database. Differentially expressed lysosome-associated genes (DE-LYAGs) of GC were acquired based on the TCGA database and GEO database. According to expression profiles of DE-LYAGs, we divided the GC patients into different subgroups and then explored tumor microenvironment (TME) landscape and immunotherapy response in LYAG subtypes using GSVA, ESTIMATE and ssGSEA algorithms. Univariate Cox regression analysis, LASSO algorithm and multivariate Cox regression analysis were adopted to identify the prognostic LYAGs and then establish a risk model for patients with GC. The Kaplan-Meier analysis, Cox regression analysis and ROC analysis were utilized to evaluate the performance of the prognostic risk model. Clinical GC specimens were also used to verify the bioinformatics results by qRT-PCR assay. Results Thirteen DE-LYAGs were obtained and utilized to distinguish three subtypes in GC samples. Expression profiles of the 13 DE-LYAGs predicted prognosis, tumor-related immunological abnormalities and pathway dysregulation in these three subtypes. Furthermore, we constructed a prognostic risk model for GC based on DEG in the three subtypes. The Kaplan-Meier analysis suggested that higher risk score related to short OS rate. The Cox regression analysis and ROC analysis indicated that risk model had independent and excellent ability in predicting prognosis of GC patients. Mechanistically, a remarkable difference was observed in immune cell infiltration, immunotherapy response, somatic mutation landscape and drug sensitivity. qRT-PCR results showed that compared with corresponding adjacent normal tissues, most screened genes showed significant abnormal expressions and the expression change trends were consistent with the bioinformatics results. Conclusions We established a novel signature based on LYAGs which could be served as a prognostic biomarker for GC. Our study might provide new insights into individualized prognostication and precision treatment for GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maodong Hu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Huangdao District People’s Hospital, Qingdao, China
| | - Ruifeng Chong
- Department of General Surgery, Chengyang District People’s Hospital, Qingdao, China
| | - Weilin Liu
- General Surgery Department, Qingdao Hongdao People's Hospital, Chengyang District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Qingdao, China
| | - Shuangyong Liu
- Department of Thyroid and Breast Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiaolei Liu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaolei Liu,
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Computational discovery of binding mode of anti-TRBC1 antibody and predicted key amino acids of TRBC1. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1760. [PMID: 35110642 PMCID: PMC8810837 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05742-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) is a type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that progresses aggressively with poor survival rate. CAR T cell targeting T-cell receptor β-chain constant domains 1 (TRBC1) of malignant T cells has been developed recently by using JOVI.1 monoclonal antibody as a template. However, the mode of JOVI.1 binding is still unknown. This study aimed to investigate the molecular interaction between JOVI.1 antibody and TRBC1 by using computational methods and molecular docking. Therefore, the TRBC protein crystal structures (TRBC1 and TRBC2) as well as the sequences of JOVI.1 CDR were chosen as the starting materials. TRBC1 and TRBC2 epitopes were predicted, and molecular dynamic (MD) simulation was used to visualize the protein dynamic behavior. The structure of JOVI.1 antibody was also generated before the binding mode was predicted using molecular docking with an antibody mode. Epitope prediction suggested that the N3K4 region of TRBC1 may be a key to distinguish TRBC1 from TCBC2. MD simulation showed the major different surface conformation in this area between two TRBCs. The JOVI.1-TRBC1 structures with three binding modes demonstrated JOVI.1 interacted TRBC1 at N3K4 residues, with the predicted dissociation constant (Kd) ranging from 1.5 × 108 to 1.1 × 1010 M. The analysis demonstrated JOVI.1 needed D1 residues of TRBC1 for the interaction formation to N3K4 in all binding modes. In conclusion, we proposed the three binding modes of the JOVI.1 antibody to TRBC1 with the new key residue (D1) necessary for N3K4 interaction. This data was useful for JOVI.1 redesign to improve the PTCL-targeting CAR T cell.
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Zheng Y, Li M, Weng B, Mao H, Zhao J. Exosome-based delivery nanoplatforms: Next-generation theranostic platforms for breast cancer. Biomater Sci 2022; 10:1607-1625. [DOI: 10.1039/d2bm00062h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most frequent type of malignancy, and the leading cause of cancer-related death in women across the globe. Exosomes are naturally derived 50-150 nm nanovesicles with a...
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Shabani S, Moghadam MF, Gargari SLM. Isolation and characterization of a novel GRP78-specific single-chain variable fragment (scFv) using ribosome display method. Med Oncol 2021; 38:115. [PMID: 34390413 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-021-01561-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) is a well-characterized endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperon frequently overexpressed at the surface of tumor cells and associated with tumor survival, metastasis, and chemoresistance. Hence, potential GRP78 binders emerge as promising candidates for cancer therapy and diagnosis. We applied ribosome display to isolate a single-chain variable domain (scFv) specific for the C-terminal domain of a recombinant human GRP78 (CGRP). Six female BALB/c mice were immunized and then splenocyte mRNA was extracted. An scFv-ribosome display library was established by joining the amplified VH/Vκ fragments through a 72-bp linker using overlap extension PCR. Then, selection was performed by applying two rounds of eukaryotic ribosome display panning with stepwise decreased amount of CGRP. Ultimately, the selected scFv was characterized using the indirect-ELISA assay, competitive-ELISA assay, Western blotting, Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR), and in-silico analyses. The constructed library had a length of ~ 1100 bp and the high-affinity scFvs were isolated using the outputs of the final panning round. Among 60 positive clones, GSF3 was selected and its expression, purification, and binding capacity was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. GSF3 exhibited an affinity of 13 × 107 M-1 to CGRP as assessed by SPR. Moreover, the in-silico analyses indicated that GSF3 binds the C-terminal domain of GRP78 through key residues engaged in antibody-antigen interactions. We found that ribosome display is a swift and reliable technique for specific and high-affinity scFv isolation. Moreover, our results suggest that GSF3 might be applied as a potential cancer immunotherapeutic and diagnostic tool if this approach is carefully followed by successful preclinical and clinical evaluations to validate the findings for further confirmation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shima Shabani
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, P.O. Box 14115/111, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Forouzandeh Moghadam
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, P.O. Box 14115/111, Tehran, Iran.
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AlHumaidi RB, Fayed B, Sharif SI, Noreddin A, Soliman SSM. Role of Exosomes in Breast Cancer Management: Evidence-Based Review. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2021; 21:666-675. [PMID: 34077346 DOI: 10.2174/1568009621666210601115707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
The field of cancer research has massively grown in recent decades, leading to a better understanding of the underlying causes and greatly improved the therapeutic approaches. Breast cancer (BC) is the third leading cause of mortality among all cancers and the most common malignant disease in women worldwide, representing one in four cancers in women. The crosstalk between cancer cells and the surrounding microenvironment is crucial for tumor progression and metastatic process. Tumor cells communicate not only through classical paracrine signaling mechanisms, including cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, but also through"exosomes". Exosomes are nano-vesicles that are released by various types of cells. Over the last decade, researchers have been attracted to the role of exosomes in breast cancer. It has been proven that exosomes influence major tumor-related pathways, including invasion, migration, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), metastasis, and drug resistance. Additionally, exosomes play important roles in clinical applications. Several studies have demonstrated the potential applications of exosomes in cancer therapy and diagnosis. Furthermore, exosomes have been engineered to function as nano-delivery systems of chemotherapeutic drugs. They can also be designed as vaccines to trigger the patient's immune system. This review discusses the recent progress regarding the use of exosomes as drug delivery systems, therapeutic agents, biomarkers, and vaccines against breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Razan B AlHumaidi
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Bahgat Fayed
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Suleiman I Sharif
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmacotherapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ayman Noreddin
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sameh S M Soliman
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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Jan AT, Rahman S, Badierah R, Lee EJ, Mattar EH, Redwan EM, Choi I. Expedition into Exosome Biology: A Perspective of Progress from Discovery to Therapeutic Development. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:1157. [PMID: 33800282 PMCID: PMC7962655 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13051157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are membrane-enclosed distinct cellular entities of endocytic origin that shuttle proteins and RNA molecules intercellularly for communication purposes. Their surface is embossed by a huge variety of proteins, some of which are used as diagnostic markers. Exosomes are being explored for potential drug delivery, although their therapeutic utilities are impeded by gaps in knowledge regarding their formation and function under physiological condition and by lack of methods capable of shedding light on intraluminal vesicle release at the target site. Nonetheless, exosomes offer a promising means of developing systems that enable the specific delivery of therapeutics in diseases like cancer. This review summarizes information on donor cell types, cargoes, cargo loading, routes of administration, and the engineering of exosomal surfaces for specific peptides that increase target specificity and as such, therapeutic delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arif Tasleem Jan
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University, Rajouri 185234, India;
| | - Safikur Rahman
- Department of Botany, MS College, BR Ambedkar Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, Bihar 842001, India;
| | - Raied Badierah
- Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, and Laboratory University Hospital, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (R.B.); (E.H.M.)
| | - Eun Ju Lee
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Research Institute of Cell Culture, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea;
| | - Ehab H. Mattar
- Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, and Laboratory University Hospital, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (R.B.); (E.H.M.)
| | - Elrashdy M. Redwan
- Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, and Laboratory University Hospital, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (R.B.); (E.H.M.)
| | - Inho Choi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Research Institute of Cell Culture, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea;
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