TGF-β promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition via NF-κB/NOX4/ROS signal pathway in lung cancer cells

Total extracts from Abelmoschus manihot (L.) alleviate radiation-induced cardiomyocyte ferroptosis via regulating redox imbalances mediated by the NOX4/xCT/GPX4 axis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Radiation-induced heart disease (RIHD) is one of the most serious complications in patients receiving chest radiotherapy, partially offsetting its benefits. At present, there is a lack of effective treatments for RIHD. Ferroptosis is a newly discovered type of cell death that results from iron-dependent lipid peroxide accumulation. It was recently shown that irradiation generates severe ferroptosis, providing new insights for the treatment of RIHD. Abelmoschus manihot (L.) possesses excellent pharmacological properties and is widely used in treating various ischemic heart and brain diseases; however, its efficacy and mechanism in treating RIHD are unknown.

AIM

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy and mechanism of total extracts from A. manihot (L.) (TEA) in treating RIHD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

C57BL/6 mice and H9C2 cells were exposed to irradiation to induce RIHD in vivo and in vitro, respectively. In vivo, we evaluated the protective effects of TEA (150 and 300 mg/kg) on RIHD. Body and heart weight changes of mice were calculated in each group, and malondialdehyde (MDA) level, glutathione/oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSH) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH/NADP+) ratios, western blot, heart histology, and immunohistochemistry were used to evaluate TEA effectiveness. We identified the potential mechanism of radiation-induced cardiomyocyte injury in H9C2 cells treated with small interfering RNA. We determined the effective dose of TEA (0.6 mg/mL) using a Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. Intracellular Fe2+ and lipid peroxidation levels were detected by Phen Green™ SK diacetate probe, BODIPY 581/591 C11 staining, and MDA, GSH, and NADPH kits, and the level of target protein was evaluated by immunofluorescence and western blot.

RESULTS

Radiation inhibited system Xc-cystine (xCT)/glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) expression and activity in cardiomyocytes in a time and dose-dependent manner. After silencing xCT/GPX4, MDA significantly increased and GSH/GSSH and NADPH/NADP+ ratios were reduced. xCT/GPX4 inhibition drove ferroptosis in radiation-induced H9C2 injury. Oxidative stress in H9C2 was significantly enhanced by irradiation, which also significantly increased NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) expression and inhibited nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression in vivo and in vitro. Inhibition of xCT/GPX4 drove ferroptosis in radiation-induced H9C2 injury, which was aggravated by inactivation of Nrf2 and alleviated by inhibition of NOX4. Compared with the ionizing radiation-only group, TEA improved body weight loss, MDA levels, and histological changes induced by irradiation in mice hearts, and increased the ratio of GSH/GSSH and NADPH/NADP+in vivo; it also reduced lipid peroxidation and intracellular Fe2+ accumulation, restored MDA levels, and elevated the ratios of GSH/GSSH and NADPH/NADP+ in irradiation-injured H9C2 cells. TEA up-regulated Nrf2, xCT, and GPX4 expression and inhibited NOX4 expression in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Ferroptosis induced by redox imbalance mediated through the NOX4/xCT/GPX4 axis is a potential mechanism behind radiation-induced cardiomyocyte injury, and can be prevented by TEA.

Dissecting the pleiotropic roles of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in lung cancer: From carcinogenesis toward therapy

Lung cancer is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The specific pulmonary structure to directly connect with ambient air makes it more susceptible to damage from airborne toxins. External oxidative stimuli and endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in promoting lung carcinogenesis and development. The biological properties of higher ROS levels in tumor cells than in normal cells make them more sensitive and vulnerable to ROS injury. Therefore, the strategy of targeting ROS has been proposed for cancer therapy for decades. However, it is embarrassing that countless attempts at ROS-based therapies have had very limited success, and no FDA approval in the anticancer list was mechanistically based on ROS manipulation. Even compared with the untargetable proteins, such as transcription factors, ROS are more difficult to be targeted due to their chemical properties. Thus, the pleiotropic roles of ROS provide therapeutic potential for anticancer drug discovery, while a better dissection of the mechanistic action and signaling pathways is a prerequisite for future breakthroughs. This review discusses the critical roles of ROS in cancer carcinogenesis, ROS-inspired signaling pathways, and ROS-based treatment, exemplified by lung cancer. In particular, an eight considerations rule is proposed for ROS-targeting strategies and drug design and development.

NOX4 regulates gastric cancer cell invasion and proliferation by increasing ferroptosis sensitivity through regulating ROS

OBJECTIVE

We assessed NOX4 expression in gastric cancer (GC), its prognostic significance, and underlying mechanisms, focusing on promoting ferroptosis through increased ROS production.

METHODS

We evaluated NOX4 expression in GC tissues via immunohistochemistry and analyzed correlations with clinicopathological characteristics using TCGA and clinical data. Impacts of manipulating NOX4 levels on GC cell invasiveness, proliferation, and sensitivity to ferroptosis inducers were investigated.

RESULTS

Significantly higher NOX4 expression in GC tissues versus normal adjacent tissues correlated with decreased overall survival and increased tumor aggressiveness. NOX4 was an independent predictor of poor prognosis. Functionally, NOX4 manipulation influenced ROS levels, with overexpression enhancing production. Inhibition of NOX4 or application of antioxidants reduced cancer cell invasion and proliferation. Importantly, NOX4-overexpressing cells showed increased sensitivity to ferroptosis inducers, indicating synergistic effects between NOX4 and ferroptosis in suppressing GC progression.

CONCLUSION

Our findings highlight NOX4's potential as a therapeutic target in GC, where modulation can enhance efficacy of ferroptosis-inducing treatments, offering a promising strategy for combating this malignancy.

The Nexus of Inflammation-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Lung Cancer Progression: A Roadmap to Pentacyclic Triterpenoid-Based Therapies

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Its high mortality is partly due to chronic inflammation that accompanies the disease and stimulates cancer progression. In this review, we analyzed recent studies and highlighted the role of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as a link between inflammation and lung cancer. In the inflammatory tumor microenvironment (iTME), fibroblasts, macrophages, granulocytes, and lymphocytes produce inflammatory mediators, some of which can induce EMT. This leads to increased invasiveness of tumor cells and self-renewal of cancer stem cells (CSCs), which are associated with metastasis and tumor recurrence, respectively. Based on published data, we propose that inflammation-induced EMT may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of lung cancer. This prospect is partially realized in the development of EMT inhibitors based on pentacyclic triterpenoids (PTs), described in the second part of our study. PTs reduce the metastatic potential and stemness of tumor cells, making PTs promising candidates for lung cancer therapy. We emphasize that the high diversity of molecular mechanisms underlying inflammation-induced EMT far exceeds those that have been implicated in drug development. Therefore, analysis of information on the relationship between the iTME and EMT is of great interest and may provide ideas for novel treatment approaches for lung cancer.

Geranylgeranylacetone, an inducer of heat shock protein 70, attenuates pulmonary fibrosis via inhibiting NF-κB/NOX4/ROS signalling pathway in vitro and in vivo

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a devastating and progressive pulmonary disease which is characterized by epithelial cell damage and extracellular collagen deposition. To date, the therapeutic options for IPF are still very limited, so the relevant mechanisms need to be explored. Heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), which has protective versus antitumor effects on cells under stress, is a member of the heat shock protein family. In the current study, qRT-PCR, western blotting, immunofluorescence staining, and migration assays were used to explore the Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process in BEAS-2B cells. Moreover, the role of GGA in the process of pulmonary fibrosis was detected by HE, Masson staining, pulmonary function test and immunohistochemistry in C57BL/6 mice. Our results indicated that GGA, as an inducer of HSP70, enhanced the transformation of BEAS-2B cells from epithelial to mesenchymal cells through the NF-κB/NOX4/ROS (reactive oxygen species) signalling pathway and could significantly reduce apoptosis of BEAS-2B cells induced by TGF-β1(Transforming growth factor β1) in vitro. In vivo studies demonstrated that HSP70-inducing drugs, such as GGA, attenuated pulmonary fibrosis progression induced by bleomycin (BLM). Collectively, these results suggested that overexpression of HSP70 attenuated pulmonary fibrosis induced by BLM in C57BL/6 mice and EMT process induced by TGF-β1 through NF-κB/NOX4/ROS pathway in vitro. Thus, HSP70 might be a potential therapeutic strategy for human lung fibrosis.

Dissecting the role of the NADPH oxidase NOX4 in TGF-beta signaling in hepatocellular carcinoma

The NADPH oxidase NOX4 has been proposed as necessary for the apoptosis induced by the Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) in hepatocytes and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. However, whether NOX4 is required for TGF-β-induced canonical (SMADs) or non-canonical signals is not fully understood yet, neither its potential involvement in other parallel actions induced by TGF-β. In this work we have used CRISPR Cas9 technology to stable attenuate NOX4 expression in HCC cells. Results have indicated that NOX4 is required for an efficient SMAD2/3 phosphorylation in response to TGF-β, whereas non-canonical signals, such as the phosphorylation of the Epidermal Growth Receptor or AKT, are higher in NOX4 silenced cells. TGF-β-mediated inhibition of cell proliferation and viability is attenuated in NOX4 silenced cells, correlating with decreased response in terms of apoptosis, and maintenance of high expression of MYC and CYCLIN D1. These results would indicate that NOX4 is required for all the tumor suppressor actions of TGF-β in HCC. However, analysis in human HCC tumors has revealed a worse prognosis for patients showing high expression of TGF-β1-related genes concomitant with high expression of NOX4. Deepening into other tumorigenic actions of TGF-β that may contribute to tumor progression, we found that NOX4 is also required for TGF-β-induced migratory effects. The Epithelial-Mesenchymal transition (EMT) program does not appear to be affected by attenuation of NOX4 levels. However, TGF-β-mediated regulation of cytoskeleton dynamics and focal adhesions require NOX4, which is necessary for TGF-β-induced increase in the chaperone Hsp27 and correct subcellular localization of Hic-5 within focal adhesions, as well for upregulation of the metalloprotease MMP9. All these results together point to NOX4 as a key element in the whole TGF-β signaling in HCC cells, revealing an unknown role for NOX4 as tumor promoter in HCC patients presenting activation of the TGF-β pathway.

Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Mechanisms in Chronic Airway Diseases: A Common Process to Target?

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a reversible process, in which epithelial cells lose their epithelial traits and acquire a mesenchymal phenotype. This transformation has been described in different lung diseases, such as lung cancer, interstitial lung diseases, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and other muco-obstructive lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. The exaggerated chronic inflammation typical of these pulmonary diseases can induce molecular reprogramming with subsequent self-sustaining aberrant and excessive profibrotic tissue repair. Over time this process leads to structural changes with progressive organ dysfunction and lung function impairment. Although having common signalling pathways, specific triggers and regulation mechanisms might be present in each disease. This review aims to describe the various mechanisms associated with fibrotic changes and airway remodelling involved in chronic airway diseases. Having better knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the EMT process may help us to identify specific targets and thus lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies to prevent or limit the onset of irreversible structural changes.

Autoimmunity: A New Focus on Nasal Polyps

Chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) has long been considered a benign, chronic inflammatory, and hyperplastic disease. Recent studies have shown that autoimmune-related mechanisms are involved in the pathology of nasal polyps. Activated plasma cells, eosinophils, basophils, innate type 2 lymphocytes, mast cells, and proinflammatory cytokine in polyp tissue indicate the mobilization of innate and adaptive immune pathways during polyp formation. The discovery of a series of autoantibodies further supports the autoimmune nature of nasal polyps. Local homeostasis dysregulation, infection, and chronic inflammation may trigger autoimmunity through several mechanisms, including autoantigens overproduction, microbial translocation, molecular mimicry, superantigens, activation or inhibition of receptors, bystander activation, dysregulation of Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs), epitope spreading, autoantigens complementarity. In this paper, we elaborated on the microbiome-mediated mechanism, abnormal host immunity, and genetic changes to update the role of autoimmunity in the pathogenesis of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps.

The paracaspase MALT1 is a downstream target of Smad3 and potentiates the crosstalk between TGF-β and NF-kB signaling pathways in cancer cells

TGF-β signaling mediates its biological effects by engaging canonical Smad proteins and crosstalking extensively with other signaling networks, including the NF-kB pathway. The paracaspase MALT1 is an intracellular signaling molecule essential for NF-kB activation downstream of several key cell surface receptors. Despite intensive research on TGF-β and NF-kB interactions, the significance of MALT1 in this context remains undecoded. Here we provide experimental evidence supporting that MALT1 functions to converge these pathways. Using A549 and Huh7 cancer cell line models, we report that TGF-β stimulation enhances MALT1 protein and transcript levels in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Systematic and selective perturbation of TGF-β signaling components identifies MALT1 as a downstream target of Smad3. Rescue experiments in SMAD3 knockout cells confirm that C-terminal phosphorylation of Smad3 is central to MALT1 induction. Corroborating these data, we document that the expression of SMAD3 and MALT1 genes are positively correlated in TCGA cohorts, and we trace the molecular basis of MALT1 elevation to promoter activation. Functional studies in parental as well as NF-kB p65 signaling reporter engineered cells conclusively reveal that MALT1 is paramount for TGF-β-stimulated nuclear translocation and transcriptional activation of NF-kB p65. Furthermore, we find that BCL10 is also implicated in TGF-β activation of NF-kB target genes, potentially coupling the TGF-β-MALT1-NF-kB signaling axis to the CARMA-BCL10-MALT1 (CBM) signalosome. The novel findings of this study indicate that MALT1 is a downstream target of the canonical TGF-β/Smad3 pathway and plays a critical role in modulating TGF-β and NF-kB crosstalk in cancer.

TGF-β as Predictive Marker and Pharmacological Target in Lung Cancer Approach

Lung cancer (LC) represents the leading cause of cancer incidence and mortality worldwide. LC onset is strongly related to genetic mutations and environmental interactions, such as tobacco smoking, or pathological conditions, such as chronic inflammation. Despite advancement in knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved in LC, this tumor is still characterized by an unfavorable prognosis, and the current therapeutic options are unsatisfactory. TGF-β is a cytokine that regulates different biological processes, particularly at the pulmonary level, and its alteration has been demonstrated to be associated with LC progression. Moreover, TGF-β is involved in promoting invasiveness and metastasis, via epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) induction, where TGF-β is the major driver. Thus, a TGF-β-EMT signature may be considered a potential predictive marker in LC prognosis, and TGF-β-EMT inhibition has been demonstrated to prevent metastasis in various animal models. Concerning a LC therapeutic approach, some TGF-β and TGF-β-EMT inhibitors could be used in combination with chemo- and immunotherapy without major side effects, thereby improving cancer therapy. Overall, targeting TGF-β may be a valid possibility to fight LC, both in improving LC prognosis and cancer therapy, via a novel approach that could open up new effective strategies against this aggressive cancer.

HMGB1 coordinates with Brahma-related gene 1 to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition via the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in BEAS-2B cells

High mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1), a highly conserved non-histone nuclear protein, is highly expressed in fibrotic diseases; however, the role of HMGB1 in pulmonary fibrosis has not been fully elucidated. In this study, an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) model was constructed using transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) to stimulate BEAS-2B cells in vitro, and HMGB1 was knocked down or overexpressed to observe its effects on cell proliferation, migration and EMT. Meanwhile, string system, immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence analyses were applied to identify and examine the relationship between HMGB1 and its potential interacting protein Brahma-related gene 1 (BRG1), and to explore the mechanism of interaction between HMGB1 and BRG1 in EMT. The results indicate that exogenous increase in HMGB1 promotes cell proliferation and migration and facilitates EMT by enhancing the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, whereas silencing HMGB1 has the opposite effect. Mechanistically, HMGB1 exerts these functions by interacting with BRG1, which may enhance BRG1 function and activate the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, thereby promoting EMT. These results suggest that HMGB1 is important for EMT and is a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.

Receptor-Mediated Redox Imbalance: An Emerging Clinical Avenue against Aggressive Cancers

Cancer cells are more vulnerable to abnormal redox fluctuations due to their imbalanced antioxidant system, where cell surface receptors sense stress and trigger intracellular signal relay. As canonical targets of many targeted therapies, cell receptors sensitize the cells to specific drugs. On the other hand, cell target mutations are commonly associated with drug resistance. Thus, exploring effective therapeutics targeting diverse cell receptors may open new clinical avenues against aggressive cancers. This paper uses focused case studies to reveal the intrinsic relationship between the cell receptors of different categories and the primary cancer hallmarks that are associated with the responses to external or internal redox perturbations. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) is examined as a promising redox modulation medium and highly selective anti-cancer therapeutic modality featuring dynamically varying receptor targets and minimized drug resistance against aggressive cancers.

Nox4 promotes osteoblast differentiation through TGF-beta signal pathway

NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4) is the main source of reactive oxygen species, which promote osteoclast formation and lead to bone loss, thereby causing osteoporosis. However, the role of Nox4 in osteoblasts during early development remains unclear. We used zebrafish to study the effect of Nox4 deletion on bone mineralization in early development. nox4-/- zebrafish showed decreased bone mineralization during early development and significantly reduced numbers of osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and chondrocytes. Transcriptome sequencing showed that the TGF-β signaling pathway was significantly disrupted in nox4-/- zebrafish. Inhibiting TGF-β signaling rescued the abnormal bone development caused by nox4 deletion and increased the number of osteoblasts. We used Saos-2 human osteosarcoma cells to confirm our results, which clarified the role of Nox4 in human osteoblasts. Our results demonstrate the mechanism of reduced bone mineralization in early development and provide a basis for the clinical treatment of osteoporosis.

Tumor necrosis factor-α coordinates with transforming growth factor-β1 to induce epithelial-mesenchymal transition and migration via the NF-κB/NOX4 pathway in bronchial epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the process by which epithelial cells transform into mesenchymal cells, which plays a significant role in lung fibrotic disease. Transforming growth factor-β1(TGF-β1) is considered to be the most effective EMT inducer. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) on TGF-β1-induced EMT and the underlying mechanisms in the human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B.

METHODS

Human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells were treated with TGF-β1 and TNF-α separately or in combination for 24 h, and qRT-PCR, western blotting, immunofluorescence staining, and migration assays were used to investigate the EMT process. Moreover, to further explore the effect of the NF-κB pathway on the EMT process, inhibitor assays (BAY-117082, NF-κB inhibitor), wound healing assays, and western blotting were performed.

RESULTS

The results showed that both cytokines enhanced the transformation of BEAS-2B cells from epithelial to mesenchymal cells. In addition, combined treatment with TNF-α and TGF-β1 further reduced E-cadherin expression, which conversely elevated α-SMA and vimentin mRNA and protein levels. Correspondingly, the migration rate of BEAS-2B cells was also increased. Furthermore, inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway blocked the expression of EMT-related markers and NOX4 induced by TGF-β1 and TNF-α, as well as cell migration.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, TNF-α and TGF-β1 cooperatively promoted EMT and cell migration in BEAS-2B cells through the NF-κB/NOX4 signaling pathway.

Reactive Oxygen Species Bridge the Gap between Chronic Inflammation and Tumor Development

According to numerous animal studies, adverse environmental stimuli, including physical, chemical, and biological factors, can cause low-grade chronic inflammation and subsequent tumor development. Human epidemiological evidence has confirmed the close relationship between chronic inflammation and tumorigenesis. However, the mechanisms driving the development of persistent inflammation toward tumorigenesis remain unclear. In this study, we assess the potential role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and associated mechanisms in modulating inflammation-induced tumorigenesis. Recent reports have emphasized the cross-talk between oxidative stress and inflammation in many pathological processes. Exposure to carcinogenic environmental hazards may lead to oxidative damage, which further stimulates the infiltration of various types of inflammatory cells. In turn, increased cytokine and chemokine release from inflammatory cells promotes ROS production in chronic lesions, even in the absence of hazardous stimuli. Moreover, ROS not only cause DNA damage but also participate in cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis by modulating several transcription factors and signaling pathways. We summarize how changes in the redox state can trigger the development of chronic inflammatory lesions into tumors. Generally, cancer cells require an appropriate inflammatory microenvironment to support their growth, spread, and metastasis, and ROS may provide the necessary catalyst for inflammation-driven cancer. In conclusion, ROS bridge the gap between chronic inflammation and tumor development; therefore, targeting ROS and inflammation represents a new avenue for the prevention and treatment of cancer.

CFTR reduces the proliferation of lung adenocarcinoma and is a strong predictor of survival in both smokers and non-smokers

Background

One of the main hurdles of oncological therapy is the development of drug resistance. The ABC transporter gene family contributes majorly to cancer chemoresistance. However, effects of somatic expression of most ABC transporters on cancer outcomes remain largely unclear.

Methods

We systematically analyzed expression signatures of all 48 human ABC transporters in samples from 8562 patients across 14 different cancer types. The association between CFTR (ABCC7) expression and outcomes was analyzed experimentally using knock-downs and pharmacological CFTR stimulation.

Results

Across 720 analyzed clinical associations with patient outcomes, 363 were nominally significant of which 29 remained significant after stringent Bonferroni correction. Among those were various previously known associations, as well as a multitude of novel factors that correlated with poor prognosis or predicted improved outcomes. The association between low CFTR levels and reduced survival in lung adenocarcinoma was confirmed in two independent cohorts of 246 patients with a history of smoking (logrank P = 0.0021, hazard ratio [HR], 0.49) and 143 never-smokers (logrank P = 0.0023, HR 0.31). Further in vitro experiments using naturally CFTR expressing lung adenocarcinoma cells showed that treatment with CFTR potentiators significantly reduced proliferation at therapeutically relevant concentrations.

Conclusions

These results suggest that CFTR acts as a pharmacologically activatable tumor suppressor and constitutes a promising target for adjuvant therapy in lung adenocarcinoma.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00432-022-04106-x.

Combined Transcriptomic and Proteomic Profiling to Unravel Osimertinib, CARP-1 Functional Mimetic (CFM 4.17) Formulation and Telmisartan Combo Treatment in NSCLC Tumor Xenografts

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is highly expressed in many non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC), necessitating the use of EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) as first-line treatments. Osimertinib (OSM), a third-generation TKI, is routinely used in clinics, but T790M mutations in exon 20 of the EGFR receptor lead to resistance against OSM, necessitating the development of more effective therapeutics. Telmisartan (TLM), OSM, and cell cycle and apoptosis regulatory protein 1 (CARP-1) functional mimetic treatments (CFM4.17) were evaluated in this study against experimental H1975 tumor xenografts to ascertain their anti-cancer effects. Briefly, tumor growth was studied in H1975 xenografts in athymic nude mice, gene and protein expressions were analyzed using next-generation RNA sequencing, proteomics, RT-PCR, and Western blotting. TLM pre-treatment significantly reduced the tumor burden when combined with CFM-4.17 nanoformulation and OSM combination (TLM_CFM-F_OSM) than their respective single treatments or combination of OSM and TLM with CFM 4.17. Data from RNA sequencing and proteomics revealed that TLM_CFM-F_OSM decreased the expression of Lamin B2, STAT3, SOD, NFKB, MMP-1, TGF beta, Sox-2, and PD-L1 proteins while increasing the expression of AMPK proteins, which was also confirmed by RT-PCR, proteomics, and Western blotting. According to our findings, the TLM_CFM-F_OSM combination has a superior anti-cancer effect in the treatment of NSCLC by affecting multiple resistant markers that regulate mitochondrial homeostasis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis.

NF-κB as a regulator of cancer metastasis and therapy response: A focus on epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Metastasis of tumor cells is a complex challenge and significantly diminishes the overall survival and prognosis of cancer patients. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a well-known mechanism responsible for the invasiveness of tumor cells. A number of molecular pathways can regulate the EMT mechanism in cancer cells and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) is one of them. The nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 can induce the transcription of several genes involved in EMT induction. The present review describes NF-κB and EMT interaction in cancer cells and their association in cancer progression. Due to the oncogenic role NF-κB signaling, its activation enhances metastasis of tumor cells via EMT induction. This has been confirmed in various cancers including brain, breast, lung and gastric cancers, among others. The ZEB1/2, transforming growth factor-β, and Slug as inducers of EMT undergo upregulation by NF-κB to promote metastasis of tumor cells. After EMT induction driven by NF-κB, a significant decrease occurs in E-cadherin levels, while N-cadherin and vimentin levels undergo an increase. The noncoding RNAs can potentially also function as upstream mediators and modulate NF-κB/EMT axis in cancers. Moreover, NF-κB/EMT axis is involved in mediating drug resistance in tumor cells. Thus, suppressing NF-κB/EMT axis can also promote the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic agents.

NADPH Oxidase 4: A Potential Therapeutic Target of Malignancy

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in the regulation of tumor occurrence and development. As a main source of ROS, NADPH oxidases are key enzymes that mediate electron transport within intracellular membranes. Of the NOX members that have been reported to be dysregulated in a wide variety of tumors, NOX4 is the member to be most frequently expressed. Numerous studies have elucidated that NOX4 gets involved in the regulation of tumor proliferation, metastasis, therapy resistance, tumor-stromal interaction and dysregulated tumor metabolism. In this review, we primarily discussed the biological function of NOX4 in tumorigenesis and progression of multiple cancer models, including its role in activating oncogenic signaling pathways, rewiring the metabolic phenotype and mediating immune response. Besides, the development of NOX4 inhibitors has also been unraveled. Herein, we discussed the interplay between NOX4 and tumorigenesis, proposing NOX4 as a promising therapeutic target waiting for further exploration.

COX-2/sEH Dual Inhibitor PTUPB Attenuates Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transformation of Alveolar Epithelial Cells via Nrf2-Mediated Inhibition of TGF-β1/Smad Signaling

Background

Arachidonic acid (ARA) metabolites are involved in the pathogenesis of epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT). However, the role of ARA metabolism in the progression of EMT during pulmonary fibrosis (PF) has not been fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of cytochrome P450 oxidase (CYP)/soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) metabolic disorders of ARA in EMT during PF.

Methods

A signal intratracheal injection of bleomycin (BLM) was given to induce PF in C57BL/6 J mice. A COX-2/sEH dual inhibitor PTUPB was used to establish the function of CYPs/COX-2 dysregulation to EMT in PF mice. In vitro experiments, murine alveolar epithelial cells (MLE12) and human alveolar epithelial cells (A549) were used to explore the roles and mechanisms of PTUPB on transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1-induced EMT.

Results

PTUPB treatment reversed the increase of mesenchymal marker molecule α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and the loss of epithelial marker molecule E-cadherin in lung tissue of PF mice. In vitro, COX-2 and sEH protein levels were increased in TGF-β1-treated alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). PTUPB decreased the expression of α-SMA and restored the expression of E-cadherin in TGF-β1-treated AECs, accompanied by reduced migration and collagen synthesis. Moreover, PTUPB attenuated TGF-β1-Smad2/3 pathway activation in AECs via Nrf2 antioxidant cascade.

Conclusion

PTUPB inhibits EMT in AECs via Nrf2-mediated inhibition of the TGF-β1-Smad2/3 pathway, which holds great promise for the clinical treatment of PF.

Oxidative Stress and Gender Disparity in Cancer

Oxidative stress is caused by homeostasis disrupted by excessively increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to intrinsic or extrinsic causes. Among diseases caused by the abnormal induction of ROS, cancer is a representative disease that shows gender specificity in the development and malignancy. Females have the advantage of longer life expectancy than males because of the genetic advantages derived from X chromosomes, the antioxidant protective function by estrogen, and the decrease in exposure to extrinsic risk factors such as alcohol and smoking. This study first examines the ordinary biological responses to oxidative stress and the effects of ROS on the cancer progression and describes the differences in cancer incidence and mortality by gender and the differences in oxidative stress affected by sex hormones. This paper summarized how several important transcription factors regulate ROS-induced stress and in vivo responses, and how their expression is changed by sex hormones. Estrogen is associated with disease resistance and greater mitochondrial function, and reduces mitochondrial damage and ROS production in females than in males. In addition, estrogen affects the activation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor (NRF) 2 and the regulation of other antioxidant-related transcription factors through NRF2, leading to benefits in females. Because ROS have a variety of molecular targets in cells, the effective cancer treatment requires understanding the potential of ROS and focusing on the characteristics of the research target such as patient's gender. Therefore, this review intends to emphasize the necessity of discussing gender specificity as a new therapeutic approach for efficient regulation of ROS considering individual specificity.

NOX4: a potential therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer and its mechanism

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 4 (NOX4) is one of the seven isoforms of NOX family, which is upregulated in pancreatic cancer cell, mouse model of pancreatic cancer and human pancreatic cancer tissue. NOX4 is a constitutively active enzyme that primarily produces hydrogen peroxide, which exhibits completely different properties from other subtypes of NOX family. More importantly, recent studies illuminate that NOX4 promotes pancreatic cancer occurrence and development in different ways. This review summarizes the potential roles and its mechanism of NOX4 in pancreatic cancer and explores NOX4 as the potential therapeutic target in pancreatic cancer.