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Chen J, Hu X, Li G, Wan P, Shao Z, Jin E, Liu X, Yang Q, Long A, Qian Y. Investigation of Prototheca bovis Infection and Its Correlation with Dairy Herd Improvement Data from a Dairy Farm in Central China. Vet Sci 2024; 11:37. [PMID: 38250943 PMCID: PMC10820511 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11010037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Prototheca bovis (P. bovis), an alga that has attracted considerable attention over the years as a causative microorganism of mastitis in dairy cows, exhibits limited susceptibility to specific aminoglycosides and antifungal agents, and no effective clinical treatment is currently available, thereby posing challenges for both prevention and treatment. To investigate the infection of P. bovis mastitis and its impact on raw milk production, a total of 348 raw milk samples were collected from August to December 2022 from a dairy farm in central China. P. bovis and other bacteria were detected, and the average infection rate of P. bovis in raw milk was 60.34% (210/348). The total number of colonies and the somatic cell count (SCC) of P. bovis positive samples were significantly higher than those of P. bovis negative samples (p < 0.01). The daily milk yield, 305-day milk yield, peak milk yield, and days to peak milk yield of the P. bovis positive samples were significantly lower than those of P. bovis negative samples (p < 0.01). A correlation analysis showed that P. bovis infection was negatively correlated with daily milk yield, 305-day milk yield, peak milk yield, and days to peak milk yield (p < 0.0001), while being positively correlated with the total number of colonies, SCC, milk loss, and protein percentage (p < 0.0001). These findings may help practitioners in comprehending the occurrence of Prototheca mastitis and developing more effective strategies for the prevention of P. bovis infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chen
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Xiuxiu Hu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
- College of Animal Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, China
| | - Guohong Li
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430206, China;
| | - Pingmin Wan
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Zhiyong Shao
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Erguang Jin
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Xiaohua Liu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Qian Yang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Anying Long
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yunguo Qian
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
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Huilca-Ibarra MP, Vasco-Julio D, Ledesma Y, Guerrero-Freire S, Zurita J, Castillejo P, Barceló Blasco F, Yanez L, Changoluisa D, Echeverría G, Bastidas-Caldes C, de Waard JH. High Prevalence of Prototheca bovis Infection in Dairy Cattle with Chronic Mastitis in Ecuador. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9120659. [PMID: 36548820 PMCID: PMC9784310 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9120659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Prototheca, a unicellular, non-photosynthetic, yeast-like microalgae, is a pathogen of concern for the dairy industry. It causes bovine mastitis that currently cannot be cured, and hence generates significant economic losses in milk production. In this study, for the first time in Ecuador, we identify Prototheca bovis as the etiologic agent of chronic mastitis in dairy cattle. Milk samples (n = 458) of cows with chronic mastitis were cultured on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA). Microscopy and cytB gene sequencing were used to identify Prototheca, whereby Prototheca bovis was isolated from 15.1% (n = 69) of the milk samples, one of the highest infection rates that can be found in the literature in a "non-outbreak" situation. No other Prototheca species were found. We were unable to isolate the alga from environmental samples. We showed that P. bovis was relatively resistant to disinfectants used to sterilize milking equipment on the cattle farms where it was isolated. We discuss how to avoid future infection and also hypothesize that the real prevalence of Prototheca infection in bovine mastitis is probably much higher than what was detected. We recommend a protocol to increase the diagnostic yield in the bacteriology laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- María P. Huilca-Ibarra
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - David Vasco-Julio
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Yanua Ledesma
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Salome Guerrero-Freire
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Jeannete Zurita
- Unidad de Investigación en Biomedicina, Zurita & Zurita Laboratorios, Quito 170104, Ecuador
| | - Pablo Castillejo
- Grupo de Investigación en Biodiversidad, Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Universidad de las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Francisco Barceló Blasco
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Lisseth Yanez
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Darwin Changoluisa
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Gustavo Echeverría
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Carlos Bastidas-Caldes
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
- Programa de Doctorado en Salud Pública y Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
- One Health Research Group, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Jacobus H. de Waard
- One Health Research Group, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +593-4168052488
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Pegolo S, Toscano A, Bisutti V, Giannuzzi D, Vanzin A, Lisuzzo A, Bonsembiante F, Gelain M, Cecchinato A. Streptococcus agalactiae and Prototheca spp. induce different mammary gland leukocyte responses in Holstein cows. JDS COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 3:270-274. [PMID: 36338024 PMCID: PMC9623724 DOI: 10.3168/jdsc.2022-0216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae increased polymorphonuclear neutrophils in milk samples. Prototheca infection greatly increased total T lymphocytes and T-helper lymphocytes in milk samples. Prototheca spp. trigger an adaptive immune response and chronic inflammation.
In this study, we investigated the association between natural subclinical intramammary infection (IMI) caused by Streptococcus agalactiae and Prototheca spp. and milk differential cell counts assessed by cytofluorimetric analysis in Holstein cows. After an initial bacteriological screening on 188 animals and a second assessment carried out 2 wk later aimed at confirming the bacteriological status, we collected milk samples from 47 animals and performed (1) milk composition analyses; (2) somatic cell counts and differential somatic cell counts (DSCC); and (3) cytofluorimetric analyses. Before statistical analyses, animals with co-infections were filtered out. Bacteriological status (negative, positive for Strep. agalactiae, or positive for Prototheca spp.) significantly affected the investigated traits. Compared with culture-negative samples, those that were positive for Strep. agalactiae and Prototheca spp. had higher SCS (+61% and +49%, respectively), DSCC (+4% and +19%, respectively), log polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN)-lymphocyte (LYM) counts (+59% and +71%, respectively), and log macrophage (MAC) counts (+63% and +72%, respectively). The individual leukocyte populations determined by cytofluorimetric analysis confirmed that mastitis infection increased the proportion of PMN in the milk samples compared with culture-negative samples, particularly when caused by Strep. agalactiae (+51%). In the case of MAC, the 2 pathogens behaved in opposite ways: Strep. agalactiae increased MAC by 41%, whereas Prototheca decreased MAC by 25%. Prototheca infection strongly increased the proportion of total T lymphocytes (TL; +87%) and T-helper lymphocytes (+83%). Accordingly, the (PMN+MAC):TL ratio increased with Strep. agalactiae infection (+95%) and decreased with Prototheca infection (−43%) compared with culture-negative samples. These results suggest the prevalence of an adaptive immune response and chronic inflammation in Prototheca infection, and an innate immune response to Strep. agalactiae. This knowledge might provide an important contribution to the development of novel and effective diagnostics and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Pegolo
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
- Corresponding author
| | - A. Toscano
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
| | - V. Bisutti
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
| | - D. Giannuzzi
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
| | - A. Vanzin
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
| | - A. Lisuzzo
- Department of Animal Medicine, Productions and Health, University of Padua, Viale dell' Università, 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
| | - F. Bonsembiante
- Department of Animal Medicine, Productions and Health, University of Padua, Viale dell' Università, 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padua, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
| | - M.E. Gelain
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padua, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
| | - A. Cecchinato
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell' Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy
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Tryptophan, Kynurenine and Kynurenic Acid Concentrations in Milk and Serum of Dairy Cows with Prototheca Mastitis. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11123608. [PMID: 34944383 PMCID: PMC8698139 DOI: 10.3390/ani11123608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to investigate serum and milk levels of tryptophan (TRP), kynurenine (KYN), and kynurenic acid (KYNA), as well as the activity of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in cows with mastitis due to Prototheca algae. The study was prompted by previous research showing a link between the KYN pathway of TRP metabolism and bovine mastitis of bacterial etiology. The study was carried out over a 2-year period (2018-2019) and included quarter milk and serum samples collected from six dairy herds in Poland. The samples were obtained from healthy cows and cows with Prototheca mastitis of either clinical and subclinical manifestation, as determined upon direct measurement of the somatic cell count or indirectly by performing a California Mastitis Test on suspected quarters. Both TRP and KYN concentrations were significantly lower in milk of mastitic cows compared to healthy animals (0.8 vs. 8.72 µM, p = 0.001; 0.07 vs. 0.32 µM, p = 0.001, respectively). The difference in TRP and KYN concentrations in the sera of the two animal groups was much less pronounced (25.55 vs. 27.57 µM, 3.03 vs. 3.56 nM, respectively). The concentration of KYNA was almost at the same level in milk (1.73 vs. 1.70 nM) and in serum (80.47 vs. 75.48 nM) of both mastitic and healthy cows. The data showed that the level of TRP and its metabolites in serum was conspicuously higher compared to milk in all cows under the study. The activity of IDO was significantly higher in milk of cows with Prototheca mastitis compared to healthy animals (71.4 vs. 40.86, p < 0.05), while in serum it was pretty much the same (135.94 vs. 124.98, p > 0.05). The IDO activity differed significantly between serum and milk both for mastitic (135.94 vs. 71.4, p < 0.05) and healthy cows (124.98 vs. 40.86, p < 0.001). In conclusion, low values of TRP and KYN concentrations or elevated IDO activity in milk samples might be used as markers of mastitis due to infectious causes, including Prototheca spp.
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Plieger T, Wolf M. 18S and ITS2 rDNA sequence-structure phylogeny of Prototheca (Chlorophyta, Trebouxiophyceae). Biologia (Bratisl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00971-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AbstractProtothecosis is an infectious disease caused by organisms currently classified within the green algal genus Prototheca. The disease can manifest as cutaneous lesions, olecranon bursitis or disseminated or systemic infections in both immunocompetent and immunosuppressed patients. Concerning diagnostics, taxonomic validity is important. Prototheca, closely related to the Chlorella species complex, is known to be polyphyletic, branching with Auxenochlorella and Helicosporidium. The phylogeny of Prototheca was discussed and revisited several times in the last decade; new species have been described. Phylogenetic analyses were performed using ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and partial mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) sequence data. In this work we use Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 (ITS2) as well as 18S rDNA data. However, for the first time, we reconstruct phylogenetic relationships of Prototheca using primary sequence and RNA secondary structure information simultaneously, a concept shown to increase robustness and accuracy of phylogenetic tree estimation. Using encoded sequence-structure data, Neighbor-Joining, Maximum-Parsimony and Maximum-Likelihood methods yielded well-supported trees in agreement with other trees calculated on rDNA; but differ in several aspects from trees using cytb as a phylogenetic marker. ITS2 secondary structures of Prototheca sequences are in agreement with the well-known common core structure of eukaryotes but show unusual differences in their helix lengths. An elongation of the fourth helix of some species seems to have occurred independently in the course of evolution.
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Prototheca zopfii genotype II induces mitochondrial apoptosis in models of bovine mastitis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:698. [PMID: 31959834 PMCID: PMC6971270 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57645-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Prototheca zopfii is an alga increasingly isolated from bovine mastitis. Of the two genotypes of P. zopfii (genotype I and II (GT-I and -II)), P. zopfii GT-II is the genotype associated with acute mastitis and decreased milk production, although its pathogenesis is not well known. The objective was to determine inflammatory and apoptotic roles of P. zopfii GT-II in cultured mammary epithelial cells (from cattle and mice) and murine macrophages and using a murine model of mastitis. Prototheca zopfii GT-II (but not GT-I) invaded bovine and murine mammary epithelial cells (MECs) and induced apoptosis, as determined by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling assay. This P. zopfii GT-II driven apoptosis corresponded to mitochondrial pathways; mitochondrial transmembrane resistance (ΔΨm) was altered and modulation of mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis regulating genes changed (increased transcriptional Bax, cytochrome-c and Apaf-1 and downregulated Bcl-2), whereas caspase-9 and -3 expression increased. Apoptotic effects by P. zopfii GT-II were more pronounced in macrophages compared to MECs. In a murine mammary infection model, P. zopfii GT-II replicated in the mammary gland and caused severe inflammation with infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils and upregulation of pro-inflammatory genes (TNF-α, IL-1β and Cxcl-1) and also apoptosis of epithelial cells. Thus, we concluded P. zopfii GT-II is a mastitis-causing pathogen that triggers severe inflammation and also mitochondrial apoptosis.
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Jagielski T, Bakuła Z, Gawor J, Maciszewski K, Kusber WH, Dyląg M, Nowakowska J, Gromadka R, Karnkowska A. The genus Prototheca (Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta) revisited: Implications from molecular taxonomic studies. ALGAL RES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2019.101639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Jagielski T, Krukowski H, Bochniarz M, Piech T, Roeske K, Bakuła Z, Wlazło Ł, Woch P. Prevalence of Prototheca spp. on dairy farms in Poland - a cross-country study. Microb Biotechnol 2019; 12:556-566. [PMID: 30891936 PMCID: PMC6465227 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Prototheca algae have recently emerged as an important cause of bovine mastitis globally. Here, we present results of a first large-scale, cross-country survey on the prevalence of Prototheca spp. in dairy cows, and their environment in Poland. A total of 1211 samples were collected and microbiologically analysed. Included within this number were milk (n = 638), body swabs (n = 374) and environmental samples (n = 199), originating from 400 dairy cows and their surroundings, on 16 dairy farms, based in all major provinces of the country. Prototheca spp. were the third, after Streptococcus and Staphylococcus spp., most common mastitis pathogens. The overall prevalence of protothecal mastitis was 8.3% (33/400), with the majority (75.8%) of cases having a subclinical course, and all but one attributable to P. zopfii genotype 2. Prototheca spp. were cultured from body swabs of both healthy and mastitic cows, yet the isolation rate among the latter was conspicuously lower (12.3% vs. 17.8%). Forty-two (21.2%) environmental samples yielded growth of Prototheca spp. However, no clear association between Prototheca mastitis in dairy cows and the algal isolation from the herd environment was found. Nor was there any association between the environmental recovery of the algae and farm management practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Applied MicrobiologyInstitute of MicrobiologyFaculty of BiologyUniversity of WarsawI. Miecznikowa 102‐096WarsawPoland
| | - Henryk Krukowski
- Department of Microbiology and Reproductive BiologyUniversity of Life SciencesAkademicka 1320‐950LublinPoland
| | - Mariola Bochniarz
- Department and Clinic of Animal ReproductionFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of Life SciencesGłęboka 3020‐612LublinPoland
| | - Tomasz Piech
- Department and Clinic of Animal ReproductionFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of Life SciencesGłęboka 3020‐612LublinPoland
| | - Katarzyna Roeske
- Department of Applied MicrobiologyInstitute of MicrobiologyFaculty of BiologyUniversity of WarsawI. Miecznikowa 102‐096WarsawPoland
| | - Zofia Bakuła
- Department of Applied MicrobiologyInstitute of MicrobiologyFaculty of BiologyUniversity of WarsawI. Miecznikowa 102‐096WarsawPoland
| | - Łukasz Wlazło
- Department of Animal Hygiene and EnvironmentUniversity of Life SciencesAkademicka 1320‐950LublinPoland
| | - Piotr Woch
- Regional Agrochemical Station in LublinSławinkowska 520‐810LublinPoland
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Jagielski T, Roeske K, Bakuła Z, Piech T, Wlazło Ł, Bochniarz M, Woch P, Krukowski H. A survey on the incidence of Prototheca mastitis in dairy herds in Lublin province, Poland. J Dairy Sci 2019; 102:619-628. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Jagielski T, Bakuła Z, Pleń M, Kamiński M, Nowakowska J, Bielecki J, Wolska KI, Grudniak AM. The activity of silver nanoparticles against microalgae of the Prototheca genus. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2018; 13:1025-1036. [PMID: 29790400 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2017-0370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate the in vitro activity of silver NPs (AgNPs) against pathogenic microalgae of the Prototheca genus. MATERIALS & METHODS The antialgal potential of AgNPs against Prototheca species of both clinical and environmental origin was assessed from minimum inhibitory (algistatic) and algicidal concentrations. The in vitro cytotoxicity of AgNPs against bovine mammary epithelial cell line was evaluated by means of the standard MTT assay. RESULTS AgNPs showed a strong killing activity toward Prototheca algae, as the minimal algicidal concentration (MAC) values matched perfectly the corresponding minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for all species (MAC = MIC, 1-4 mg/l), except P. stagnora (MIC > 8 mg/l). The concentrations inhibitory to pathogenic Prototheca spp. (MIC, 1-4 mg/l) were below the concentrations at which any toxicity in epithelial cells could be observed (CC20 > 6 mg/l). CONCLUSION The study emphasizes the potential of AgNPs as a new therapeutic tool for the management of Prototheca infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Poland
| | - Zofia Bakuła
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Pleń
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Poland
| | - Michał Kamiński
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Poland
| | - Julita Nowakowska
- Laboratory of Electron & Confocal Microscopy, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jacek Bielecki
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Poland
| | - Krystyna I Wolska
- Department of Bacterial Genetics, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Poland
| | - Anna M Grudniak
- Department of Bacterial Genetics, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Poland
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Milanov D, Petrović T, Polaček V, Suvajdžić L, Bojkovski J. Mastitis associated with Prototheca zopfii - an emerging health and economic problem on dairy farms. J Vet Res 2016. [DOI: 10.1515/jvetres-2016-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Increased incidence of protothecal mastitis has been recorded in several countries in the past ten years. The main goal of this article is to draw the attention of scientific and professional community to the emerging issue of mammary protothecosis. The article collates currently known facts about infection reservoirs, predisposing factors for the development of mastitis, clinical manifestations of the disease, and potential transmission routes within the herd as well as the measures for control and eradication. We would like to point out that identification of protothecal mastitis on a dairy farm is associated with a range of problems. Early detection of infected animals can be difficult because of predominantly subclinical course of early-stage infection, which easily spreads between cows via the milking system. Spontaneous recovery has not been recorded and infected cows typically develop chronic mastitis with granulomatous infiltration and progressive loss of functional parenchyma of the mammary gland. Substantial economic losses and health damages associated with mammary protothecosis strongly emphasise the need for developing effective prevention strategies aimed at control of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dubravka Milanov
- Scientific Veterinary Institute “Novi Sad”, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Tamaš Petrović
- Scientific Veterinary Institute “Novi Sad”, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Vladimir Polaček
- Scientific Veterinary Institute “Novi Sad”, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Ljiljana Suvajdžić
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Jovan Bojkovski
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
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Hertl J, Schukken Y, Welcome F, Tauer L, Gröhn Y. Pathogen-specific effects on milk yield in repeated clinical mastitis episodes in Holstein dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2014; 97:1465-80. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2013-7266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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13
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Treatment with gentamicin on a murine model of protothecal mastitis. Mycopathologia 2013; 175:241-8. [PMID: 23463523 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-013-9628-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to establish a murine protothecal mastitis model and to evaluate the treatment efficiency of gentamicin. Challenge routes were determined with a pathogenic Prototheca zopfii genotype 2 (P. zopfii) strain. 25 BALB/c mice were inoculated in mammary glands with graded dosages (10(3), 10(4), 10(5), 10(6), 10(7) CFU of P. zopfii) and killed on the 7th day. Another 25 animals were also killed at 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 days after inoculation of 1 × 10(6) CFU of P. zopfii, the milk somatic cell counts, pathological section of mammary glands, and P. zopfii burden were observed. The antimicrobial activity was tested using disc diffusion test and minimum inhibitory concentrations. Gentamicin was given intramuscularly to analyze the therapeutic effect. The results showed that the best infection route was intra-mammary gland, and the mastitis model was established with 1 × 10(6) CFU of P. zopfii. After infection, the somatic cell counts increased significantly. The pathological reaction mainly consisted of infiltration of inflammatory cells, destruction of acini, accumulation of lymphocyte cells and the severity of the changes was dosage and time-dependent. The P. zopfii burden revealed that P. zopfii continuously replicated. In vitro susceptibility tests indicated that the Prototheca strains were antimicrobial susceptible to gentamicin at concentrations between 0.03 and 4 μg/ml. In vivo therapeutic assay demonstrated that high concentrations of gentamicin (≥20 mg/kg) could inhibit the growth of P. zopfii. We conclude that the murine model of protothecal mastitis was established successfully and gentamicin may be an effective choice for treatment of P. zopfii.
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14
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Pieper L, Godkin A, Roesler U, Polleichtner A, Slavic D, Leslie KE, Kelton DF. Herd characteristics and cow-level factors associated with Prototheca mastitis on dairy farms in Ontario, Canada. J Dairy Sci 2012; 95:5635-44. [PMID: 22884347 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2011-5106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Prototheca spp. are algae that cause incurable acute or chronic mastitis in dairy cows. The aim of this case-control study was the identification of cow- and herd-level risk factors for this unusual mastitis pathogen. Aseptically collected composite milk samples from 2,428 milking cows in 23 case and 23 control herds were collected between January and May 2011. A questionnaire was administered to the producers, and cow-level production and demographic data were gathered. In 58 of 64 isolates, Prototheca spp. and Prototheca zopfii genotypes were differentiated using PCR and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. All isolates were identified as Prototheca zopfii genotype 2. The mean within-herd prevalence for Prototheca spp. was 5.1% (range 0.0-12.5%). Case herds had a significantly lower herd-level prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and a higher prevalence of yeasts than did control herds. The final logistic regression model for herd-level risk factors included use of intramammary injections of a non-intramammary drug [odds ratio (OR) = 136.8], the number of different injectable antibiotic products being used (OR = 2.82), the use of any dry cow teat sealant (external OR = 80.0; internal OR = 34.2), and having treated 3 or more displaced abomasums in the last 12 mo OR = 44.7). The final logistic regression model for cow-level risk factors included second or greater lactation (OR = 4.40) and the logarithm of the lactation-average somatic cell count (OR = 2.99). Unsanitary or repeated intramammary infusions, antibiotic treatment, and off-label use of injectable drugs in the udder might promote Prototheca udder infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Pieper
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1.
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15
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Characterization of Prototheca zopfii associated with outbreak of bovine clinical mastitis in herd of Beijing, China. Mycopathologia 2011; 173:275-81. [PMID: 22160589 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-011-9510-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Prototheca zopfii (P. zopfii) has become an important cause of bovine mastitis in many countries. In the present study, to better understand the occurrence of one clinical mastitis (CM) outbreak due to P. zopfii, the molecular characterization and resistance patterns of the microalga were described. P. zopfii strains were isolated from 17 of 23 quarters, which suffered CM in the outbreak, and 7 of 46 CM recovered quarters before the outbreak, as well as 2 of 75 environmental samples in the dairy farm. All strains were identified as genotype 2 by genotype-specific PCR analysis. Results of in vitro antimicrobial and antifungal susceptibility tests indicated that these strains were resistant to majority of tested drugs, with the only exception of amphotericin B, nystatin, streptomycin, gentamicin, and amikacin. This is the first report about CM outbreak caused by P. zopfii in China. These data suggest that P. zopfii may represent a serious risk in the studied herd, and this microalga could be an important potential pathogen causing mastitis in dairy herds of Beijing.
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16
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Zadoks RN, Middleton JR, McDougall S, Katholm J, Schukken YH. Molecular epidemiology of mastitis pathogens of dairy cattle and comparative relevance to humans. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2011; 16:357-72. [PMID: 21968538 PMCID: PMC3208832 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-011-9236-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 09/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mastitis, inflammation of the mammary gland, can be caused by a wide range of organisms, including gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, mycoplasmas and algae. Many microbial species that are common causes of bovine mastitis, such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus also occur as commensals or pathogens of humans whereas other causative species, such as Streptococcus uberis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae or Staphylococcus chromogenes, are almost exclusively found in animals. A wide range of molecular typing methods have been used in the past two decades to investigate the epidemiology of bovine mastitis at the subspecies level. These include comparative typing methods that are based on electrophoretic banding patterns, library typing methods that are based on the sequence of selected genes, virulence gene arrays and whole genome sequencing projects. The strain distribution of mastitis pathogens has been investigated within individual animals and across animals, herds, countries and host species, with consideration of the mammary gland, other animal or human body sites, and environmental sources. Molecular epidemiological studies have contributed considerably to our understanding of sources, transmission routes, and prognosis for many bovine mastitis pathogens and to our understanding of mechanisms of host-adaptation and disease causation. In this review, we summarize knowledge gleaned from two decades of molecular epidemiological studies of mastitis pathogens in dairy cattle and discuss aspects of comparative relevance to human medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth N Zadoks
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, UK.
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17
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Ahrholdt J, Murugaiyan J, Straubinger RK, Jagielski T, Roesler U. Epidemiological analysis of worldwide bovine, canine and human clinical Prototheca isolates by PCR genotyping and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry proteomic phenotyping. Med Mycol 2011; 50:234-43. [PMID: 21905948 DOI: 10.3109/13693786.2011.597445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study presents information on the phenotypic and genotypic characterization of clinical Prototheca spp. isolates obtained from different geographic regions. Of 350 isolates studied, 342 came from cattle, six from canines and two from humans. Phenotypic characterization was carried out by a matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) proteomic analysis. The peptide extraction that was used for this analysis included the additional steps of washing and sonication to increase the yield of peptide. Genotypic analysis was conducted using species- and genotype-specific primers. The study revealed that among the cattle isolates, 310 (90.6%) belonged to Prototheca zopfii genotype 2, 30 (8.8%) to P. blaschkeae, and two (0.6%) to P. zopfii genotype 1. P. zopfii genotype 2 is the principal etiological agent of protothecal mastitis in cattle regardless of the geographic region. Similarly, all canine and human isolates also belonged to the P. zopfii genotype 2, suggesting that this is probably the most virulent species of the genus. The role of P. blaschkeae needs further epidemiologic studies to ascertain its etiologic role in bovine mastitis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study on phenotypic and genotypic characterization of P. zopfii and P. blaschkeae isolates originating from diverse clinical specimens from different countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Ahrholdt
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health, Free University of Berlin, Berlin.
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18
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ITO T, KANO R, SOBUKAWA H, OGAWA J, HONDA Y, HOSOI Y, SHIBUYA H, SATO T, HASEGAWA A, KAMATA H. Experimental Infection of Bovine Mammary Gland with Prototheca zopfii Genotype 1. J Vet Med Sci 2011; 73:117-9. [DOI: 10.1292/jvms.10-0242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Takaaki ITO
- Okazaki Branch of Veterinary Hospital Aichi P.F.A.M.A.A
| | - Rui KANO
- Department of Pathobiology, Nihon University School of Veterinary Medicine
| | - Hideto SOBUKAWA
- Department of Pathobiology, Nihon University School of Veterinary Medicine
| | - Jin OGAWA
- Meat Inspection Center, Toyohashi City
| | | | | | - Hisashi SHIBUYA
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Nihon University School of Veterinary Medicine
| | - Tsuneo SATO
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Nihon University School of Veterinary Medicine
| | | | - Hiroshi KAMATA
- Department of Pathobiology, Nihon University School of Veterinary Medicine
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Jagielski T, Lassa H, Ahrholdt J, Malinowski E, Roesler U. Genotyping of bovine Prototheca mastitis isolates from Poland. Vet Microbiol 2010; 149:283-7. [PMID: 21055886 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Revised: 09/19/2010] [Accepted: 09/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bovine mastitis due to unicellular, achlorophyllous algae of the genus Prototheca is a serious and complex ailment that accounts for high economic losses in the dairy industry. Bovine protothecal mastitis has been almost exclusively associated with only one species Prototheca zopfii. Recently, based on the 18S rDNA sequence analysis, P. zopfii has been divided into three genotypes (1-3), of which P. zopfii genotype 3 has been given the status of a new species Prototheca blaschkeae sp. nov. The aim of this study was to investigate the genotypic composition of the population of P. zopfii bovine mastitis isolates from Poland, according to that threefold classification. Of the 44 isolates tested, 43 (98%) were identified as P. zopfii genotype 2. Only one isolate was assigned to the newly established P. blaschkeae species. These findings clearly show the predominance of the P. zopfii genotype 2 in the etiology of bovine mammary protothecosis in Poland, but also underline the involvement of P. blaschkeae in the disease. The study is the first to provide molecular characterization of Polish P. zopfii mastitis isolates, collected from different regions of Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Applied Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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20
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Salerno T, Ribeiro MG, Langoni H, Siqueira AK, Costa EOD, Melville PA, Bueno VFF, Yamamura AAM, Roesler U, Silva AVD. In vitro algaecide effect of sodium hypochlorite and iodine based antiseptics on Prototheca zopfii strains isolated from bovine milk. Res Vet Sci 2010; 88:211-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2009.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2008] [Revised: 06/26/2009] [Accepted: 08/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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21
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Thompson G, Silva E, Marques S, Müller A, Carvalheira J. Algaemia in a dairy cow by Prototheca blaschkeae. Med Mycol 2010; 47:527-31. [PMID: 19301176 DOI: 10.1080/13693780802566341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe the first known case of an algaemia by Prototheca blaschkeae in a dairy cow, which occurred after a chronic episode of mastitis caused by this pathogen. The organism was isolated from milk, joint fluid and blood samples, and microbiologic and molecular methods were performed to obtain a definitive identification of the algae. The affected cow was culled only after confirmation of a systemic infection by Prototheca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gertrude Thompson
- Department of Veterinary Clinics, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS)Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Microbicidal Action of Indole-3-Acetic Acid Combined with Horseradish Peroxidase on Prototheca zopfii from Bovine Mastitis. Mycopathologia 2009; 169:99-105. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-009-9234-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2009] [Accepted: 08/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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23
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Onozaki M, Makimura K, Hasegawa A. Rapid identification of Prototheca zopfii by nested polymerase chain reaction based on the nuclear small subunit ribosomal DNA. J Dermatol Sci 2009; 54:56-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2008.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2008] [Revised: 09/30/2008] [Accepted: 10/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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24
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Macedo JTSA, Riet-Correa F, Dantas AFM, Simões SVD. Cutaneous and nasal protothecosis in a goat. Vet Pathol 2008; 45:352-4. [PMID: 18487492 DOI: 10.1354/vp.45-3-352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A case of protothecosis is reported in an adult goat with inspiratory dyspnea and stertor. Dermatitis with prominent ulcerated nodules up to 3 cm in diameter was observed in the muzzle at the mucocutaneous junctions of nasal and lip skin, and in the border of the pinna. Histologic lesions were necrotizing pyogranulomatous dermatitis and rhinitis with myriads of walled sporangia, characteristic of Prototheca wickerhamii. This seems to be the first report of protothecosis in a goat.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T S A Macedo
- Hospital Veterinário, CSTR, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Campus de Patos, Patos, Paraíba, 58700-000, Brazil
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25
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Cunha LT, Pugine SP, Valle CR, Ribeiro AR, Costa EJX, De Melo MP. Effect of Prototheca zopfii on neutrophil function from bovine milk. Mycopathologia 2006; 162:421-6. [PMID: 17146586 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-006-0078-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2006] [Accepted: 10/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study was carried to investigate neutrophil function in the presence of Prototheca zopfii. For this purpose, bovine milk neutrophils were incubated in the absence (control) of and presence of P. zopfii, and then they were examined hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) production, antioxidant enzyme activities, and phagocytic capacity. Milk was collected from negative "California Mastitis Test" (CMT) quarter from three lactating Holstein cows after induction of leukocytosis with an intramammary infusion of oyster glycogen. H(2)O(2) production was measured using the phenol red method. Catalase activity was measured following H(2)O(2) reduction at 240 nm and the activity of glutathione reductase was determined by measuring the rate of NADPH oxidation at 340 nm. P. zopfii death was assessed by fluorescent microscopy using acridine orange assay and by colony forming units (CFUs). Comparisons between the groups were initially performed by analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant differences were then compared using Tukey's test with a significance coefficient of 0.05. Hydrogen peroxide production, catalase and glutathione reductase activities by neutrophils incubated in presence of P. zopfii were stimulated five times, 21% and 27% respectively, compared to the unstimulated-neutrophils. Neutrophils did not affect P. zopfii death as shown by microscopy and CFUs. These observations led to the conclusion that the P. zopfii promote a high increase of H(2)O(2) production by neutrophils from bovine milk during algae exposition accompanied by increase of antioxidant enzyme activities; however, this process did not affect P. zopfii death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciane T Cunha
- Departament of Basic Science, Faculty of Zootechny and Food Engineering-FZEA, Universidade de São Paulo, Av Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, 13635-000, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
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