The Anticonvulsant and Neuroprotective Effects of Baicalin on Pilocarpine-Induced Epileptic Model in Rats

Ficus platyphylla alleviates seizure severity and neurobehavioral comorbidities in pentylenetetrazole-kindled rats via modulation of oxidative stress

PTZ kindling induces oxidative stress, neuronal cell degeneration, and neurobehavioral alterations in rodents that mimic neuropsychiatric comorbidities of epilepsy, which could be initiated or aggravated by some antiepileptic drugs. Here, we investigated the effects of the methanol extract of Ficus platyphylla (FP) on severity scores for seizures, neuronal cell degeneration, and neurobehavioral alterations in rats kindled with pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and probed the involvement of oxidative stress in these ameliorative effects of FP. FP (50 and 100 mg/kg, p.o.) ameliorated seizure severity, neuronal cell degeneration, depressive behaviors, cognitive dysfunctions, and oxidative stress in rats kindled with PTZ (42.5 mg/kg, i.p.). The findings from this study give additional insights into the potential values of FP in the treatment of persistent epilepsy and major neuropsychiatric comorbidities via modulation of oxidative stress.

Effects of baicalin pre-treatment on pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures: Insights from zebrafish larvae locomotor behavior and neuronal calcium imaging

Natural compounds are increasingly being studied for their potential neuroprotective effects against inflammatory neurological diseases. Epilepsy is a common neurological disease associated with inflammatory processes, and around 30% of people with epilepsy do not respond to traditional treatments. Some flavonoids, when taken along with antiseizure medications can help reduce the likelihood of drug-resistant epilepsy. Baicalin, a plant-based compound, has been shown to possess pharmacological properties such as anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anticonvulsant, and antioxidant activities. In this study, we tested the effect of baicalin on an established model of pharmacologically induced seizure in zebrafish using measures of both locomotor behavior and calcium imaging of neuronal activity. The results of our study showed that, at the tested concentration, and contrary to other studies in rodents, baicalin did not have an anti-seizure effect in zebrafish larvae. However, given its known properties, other concentrations and approaches should be explored to determine if it could potentially have other beneficial effects, either alone or when administered in combination with classic antiseizure medications.

Phytotherapeutic options for the treatment of epilepsy: pharmacology, targets, and mechanism of action

Epilepsy is one of the most common, severe, chronic, potentially life-shortening neurological disorders, characterized by a persisting predisposition to generate seizures. It affects more than 60 million individuals globally, which is one of the major burdens in seizure-related mortality, comorbidities, disabilities, and cost. Different treatment options have been used for the management of epilepsy. More than 30 drugs have been approved by the US FDA against epilepsy. However, one-quarter of epileptic individuals still show resistance to the current medications. About 90% of individuals in low and middle-income countries do not have access to the current medication. In these countries, plant extracts have been used to treat various diseases, including epilepsy. These medicinal plants have high therapeutic value and contain valuable phytochemicals with diverse biomedical applications. Epilepsy is a multifactorial disease, and therefore, multitarget approaches such as plant extracts or extracted phytochemicals are needed, which can target multiple pathways. Numerous plant extracts and phytochemicals have been shown to treat epilepsy in various animal models by targeting various receptors, enzymes, and metabolic pathways. These extracts and phytochemicals could be used for the treatment of epilepsy in humans in the future; however, further research is needed to study the exact mechanism of action, toxicity, and dosage to reduce their side effects. In this narrative review, we comprehensively summarized the extracts of various plant species and purified phytochemicals isolated from plants, their targets and mechanism of action, and dosage used in various animal models against epilepsy.

Glycyrrhizic Acid Alleviates Semen Strychni-Induced Neurotoxicity Through the Inhibition of HMGB1 Phosphorylation and Inflammatory Responses

The neurotoxicity of Semen Strychni has been reported recently in several clinical cases. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the role of HMGB1 in a model of neurotoxicity induced by Semen Strychni and to assess the potential alleviating effects of glycyrrhizic acid (GA), which is associated with the regulation of HMGB1 release. Forty-eight SD rats were intraperitoneally injected with Semen Strychni extract (175 mg/kg), followed by oral administration of GA (50 mg/kg) for four days. After treatment of SS and GA, neuronal degeneration, apoptosis, and necrosis were observed via histopathological examination. Inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β), neurotransmitter associated enzymes (MAO and AChE), serum HMGB1, nuclear and cytoplasmic HMGB1/ph-HMGB1, and the interaction between PP2A, PKC, and HMGB1 were evaluated. The influence of the MAPK pathway was also examined. As a result, this neurotoxicity was characterized by neuronal degeneration and apoptosis, the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and a reduction in neurotransmitter-metabolizing enzymes. In contrast, GA treatment significantly ameliorated the abovementioned effects and alleviated nerve injury. Furthermore, Semen Strychni promoted HMGB1 phosphorylation and its translocation between the nucleus and cytoplasm, thereby activating the NF-κB and MAPK pathways, initiating various inflammatory responses. Our experiments demonstrated that GA could partially reverse these effects. In summary, GA acid alleviated Semen Strychni-induced neurotoxicity, possibly by inhibiting HMGB1 phosphorylation and preventing its release from the cell.

In silico investigation of potential phytoconstituents against ligand- and voltage-gated ion channels as antiepileptic agents

The most promising anticonvulsant phytocompounds were explored in this work using docking, molecular dynamic (MD) simulation, and Molecular Mechanics-Poisson-Boltzmann Surface Area (MM-PBSA) approaches. A total of 70 phytochemicals were screened against α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA), N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA), voltage-gated sodium ion channels (VGSC), and carbonic anhydrase enzyme II (CA II) receptors, and the docking results were compared to the reference drug phenytoin. Amentoflavone displayed the highest affinity for AMPA and VGSC receptors, with docking scores of - 10.4 and - 10.1 kcal/mol, respectively. Oliganthin H-NMDA and epigallocatechin-3-gallate-CA II complexes showed docking scores of - 10.9 and - 6.9 kcal/mol, respectively. All four complexes depicted a high dock score compared to the phenytoin complex at the binding site of the corresponding proteins. The MD simulation investigated the stabilities and favorable conformation of apoproteins and ligand/reference-bound complexes. The results revealed that proteins AMPA, VGSC, and CA II were more efficiently stabilized by lead phytochemicals than phenytoin binding. Additionally, principal component analysis and MM-PBSA results suggested that these lead phytocompounds have good compactness and strong binding free energy. Further, physicochemical and pharmacokinetic studies revealed that these final lead phytochemicals would be suitable for oral intake, have sufficient intestinal permeability, and have the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Comprehensively, this study predicted amentoflavone as the best lead phytochemical out of the 70 anticonvulsant phytocompounds that can be used to treat epilepsy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-024-03948-1.

The effect of scutellaria baicalensis and its active ingredients on major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of literature in pre-clinical research

Background: Scutellaria baicalensis, the dry root of scutellaria baicalensis georgi, is a traditional Chinese medicine with long. In clinic, scutellaria baicalensis is commonly used in prescription for the treatment of depression. Additionally, numerous pre-clinical studies have shown that Scutellaria baicalensis and its active constituents are effective for depression. In this study, we aims to systematically review the roles of scutellaria baicalensis in depression and summarize the possible mechanism. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to analyze the existing studies on the effects of scutellaria baicalensis on depression in animal models. Briefly, we searched electronic databases including Pubmed and Embase for preclinical trial studies from inception to September 2023. The items in each study were evaluated by two independent reviewers, and meta-analyses were performed on scutellaria baicalensis-induced behavioral changes in the study. Finally, random effects model is used to collect data. Results: A total of 49 studies were identified, and 13 studies were included in the final analysis. They all reported the different antidepressant effects of scutellaria baicalensis and the underlying biological mechanisms. Among the included 13 studies, the results of eight articles SPT[SMD = -2.80, 95%CI(-4.03, -1.57), p < 0.01], the results of the nine articles OFT[SMD = -2.38, 95%CI(-3.53, -1.23), p < 0.01], and the results of two articles NSFT[SMD = -2.98, 95%CI(-3.94, -2.02), p < 0.01] were significantly different from the control group. The risk of bias was moderate in all studies, however, there was a significant heterogeneity among studies. Conclusion: These results preliminarily suggest that scutellaria baicalensis can alleviate depressive behaviors and modulate underlying mechanisms, which is expected to be a promising antidepressant.

Research progress on the treatment of epilepsy with traditional Chinese medicine

BACKGROUND

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) system is a medical system that has been expanding for thousands of years that was formed by the extensive clinical practice experience of many physicians and the accumulation of personal medication habits in China. In TCM, there is a history of long-term medication for epilepsy, the main treatment for epilepsy is TCM drugs and its prescription, supplemented by TCM modalities such as acupuncture therapy, moxibustion therapy, tuina, emotion adjustment therapy, etc. PURPOSE: With the modernization of TCM, the active ingredients and molecular mechanisms of TCM for epilepsy treatment have been gradually revealed. This review aimed to comprehensively summarize the TCM treatment of epilepsy, focusing on the current TCM drugs and some TCM formulae for the treatment of epilepsy, and to discuss the research progress of TCM for the treatment of epilepsy, and to provide a reference to develop future related studies in this field.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mechanism of action of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) was interpreted from different perspectives by searching online databases and querying various materials identify drugs used in both modern medicine and TCM systems for the treatment of epilepsy. We collected all relevant TCM for epilepsy literature published in the last 30 years up to December 2022 from electronic databases such as PubMed, CNKI and Web of Science, and statistically analyzed the literature for the following keyword information. The search terms comprise the keywords "TCM", "phytochemistry", "pharmacological activity", "epilepsy" and "traditional application" as a combination. Scientific plant names were provided by "The Plant List" (www.theplantlist.org).

RESULTS

Epilepsy is a complex and serious disease of the brain and nervous system. At present, the treatment of epilepsy in modern medicine is mainly surgery and chemotherapy, but there are many serious side effects. By summarizing the treatment of epilepsy in TCM, it is found that there are various methods to treat epilepsy in TCM, mainly TCM drugs and its formulae. Many TCM drugs have antiepileptic effects. Now found that the main effective TCM drugs for the treatment of epilepsy are Curcumae Longae Rhizoma, Scorpio, Acori Tatarinowii Rhizoma, Uncariae Ramulus Cum Uncis and Ganoderma, etc. And the main compounds that play a role in the treatment of epilepsy are curcumin, gastrodin, ligustrazine, baicalin and rhynchophylline, etc. These TCM drugs have played an important role in the treatment of epilepsy in TCM clinic. However, the chemically active components of these TCM drugs are diverse and their mechanisms of action are complex, which are not fully understood and need to be further explored.

CONCLUSIONS

TCM treats epilepsy in a variety of ways, and with the discovery of a variety of potential bioactive substances for treatment of epilepsy. With the new progress in the research of other TCM treatment methods for epilepsy, TCM will have greater potential in the clinical application of epilepsy.

Evaluation of Carbonic Anhydrase, Acetylcholinesterase, Butyrylcholinesterase, and α-Glycosidase Inhibition Effects and Antioxidant Activity of Baicalin Hydrate

Baicalin is the foremost prevalent flavonoid found in Scutellaria baicalensis. It also frequently occurs in many multi-herbal preparations utilized in Eastern countries. The current research has assessed and compared the antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticholinergic, and antiglaucoma properties of baicalin hydrate. Baicalin hydrate was tested for its antioxidant capacity using a variety of techniques, including N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride radical (DMPD•+) scavenging activity, 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonate) radical (ABTS•+) scavenging activity, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH•) scavenging activity, potassium ferric cyanide reduction ability, and cupric ions (Cu2+) reducing activities. Also, for comparative purposes, reference antioxidants, such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), Trolox, α-Tocopherol, and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) were employed. Baicalin hydrate had an IC50 value of 13.40 μg/mL (r2: 0.9940) for DPPH radical scavenging, whereas BHA, BHT, Trolox, and α-Tocopherol had IC50 values of 10.10, 25.95, 7.059, and 11.31 μg/mL for DPPH• scavenging, respectively. These findings showed that baicalin hydrate had comparably close and similar DPPH• scavenging capability to BHA, α-tocopherol, and Trolox, but it performed better than BHT. Additionally, apart from these studies, baicalin hydrate was tested for its ability to inhibit a number of metabolic enzymes, including acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), carbonic anhydrase II (CA II), and α-glycosidase, which have been linked to several serious illnesses, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), glaucoma, and diabetes, where the Ki values of baicalin hydrate toward the aforementioned enzymes were 10.01 ± 2.86, 3.50 ± 0.68, 19.25 ± 1.79, and 26.98 ± 9.91 nM, respectively.

Treating Epilepsy with Natural Products: Nonsense or Possibility?

Epilepsy is a neurological disease characterized by recurrent seizures that can lead to uncontrollable muscle twitching, changes in sensitivity to sensory perceptions, and disorders of consciousness. Although modern medicine has effective antiepileptic drugs, the need for accessible and cost-effective medication is urgent, and products derived from plants could offer a solution. For this review, we have focused on natural compounds that have shown anticonvulsant activity in in vivo models of epilepsy at relevant doses. In some cases, the effects have been confirmed by clinical data. The results of our search are summarized in tables according to their molecular targets. We have critically evaluated the data we present, identified the most promising therapeutic candidates, and discussed these in the text. Their perspectives are supported by both pharmacokinetic properties and potential interactions. This review is intended to serve as a basis for future research into epilepsy and related disorders.

GABA content and an antioxidant profile positively correlated with the anticonvulsive activity of Microcos paniculata in acute seizure mice

This study evaluated the effects of different parts of M. paniculata (MP) extracts on convulsions and antioxidant activities in mice. Six polyphenolic compounds were identified, where epicatechin and quercetin have been identified in the highest amounts (23.01 and 32.23 mg/100 g of dry MP extract, respectively) in MP leaf and stem extracts, using Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography. 7-day oral administration of MP at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight (BW) significantly reduced convulsions and reduced mortality rates compared with seizure inducer groups. Antioxidant potentials were measured by superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and reduced glutathione (GSH) content in whole-brain homogenates. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels significantly increased in leaves and stem-treated groups, suggesting that MP leaves and stems have potent antioxidant properties that can attenuate convulsions by modulating the GABAergic system and antioxidant activities.

Therapeutic Strategies to Ameliorate Neuronal Damage in Epilepsy by Regulating Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Neuroinflammation

Epilepsy is a central nervous system disorder involving spontaneous and recurring seizures that affects 50 million individuals globally. Because approximately one-third of patients with epilepsy do not respond to drug therapy, the development of new therapeutic strategies against epilepsy could be beneficial. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are frequently observed in epilepsy. Additionally, neuroinflammation is increasingly understood to contribute to the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Mitochondrial dysfunction is also recognized for its contributions to neuronal excitability and apoptosis, which can lead to neuronal loss in epilepsy. This review focuses on the roles of oxidative damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, NAPDH oxidase, the blood-brain barrier, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation in the development of epilepsy. We also review the therapies used to treat epilepsy and prevent seizures, including anti-seizure medications, anti-epileptic drugs, anti-inflammatory therapies, and antioxidant therapies. In addition, we review the use of neuromodulation and surgery in the treatment of epilepsy. Finally, we present the role of dietary and nutritional strategies in the management of epilepsy, including the ketogenic diet and the intake of vitamins, polyphenols, and flavonoids. By reviewing available interventions and research on the pathophysiology of epilepsy, this review points to areas of further development for therapies that can manage epilepsy.

Pharmacological modulation of autophagy for epilepsy therapy: opportunities and obstacles

Epilepsy (EP) is a long-term neurological disorder characterized by neuroinflammatory responses, neuronal apoptosis, imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, and oxidative stress in the brain. Autophagy is a process of cellular self-regulation to maintain normal physiological functions. Emerging evidence suggests that dysfunctional autophagy pathways in neurons are a potential mechanism underlying EP pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss current evidence and molecular mechanisms of autophagy dysregulation in EP and the probable function of autophagy in epileptogenesis. Moreover, we review the autophagy modulators reported for the treatment of EP models, and discuss the obstacles to, and opportunities for, the potential therapeutic applications of novel autophagy modulators as EP therapies. Teaser: Defective autophagy affects the onset and progression of epilepsy, and many anti-epileptic drugs have autophagy-modulating effects.

The protective effects of baicalin and chrysin against emamectin benzoate-induced toxicity in Wistar albino rats

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of baicalin, chrysin and their combinations against emamectin benzoate-induced toxicity in rats. For this purpose, sixty four rats were divided into evenly 8 groups with 6-8-week-old male Wistar albino rats, weighing 180-250 g, in each group. While the first group was kept as a control (corn oil), the remaining 7 groups were administered with emamectin benzoate (10 mg/kg bw), baicalin (50 mg/kg bw) and chrysin (50 mg/kg bw) alone or together for 28 days. Oxidative stress parameters, serum biochemical parameters and blood/tissue (liver, kidney, brain, testis and heart) and tissue histopathology were investigated. Compared to the control group, the emamectin benzoate-intoxicated rats had significantly higher tissue/plasma concentrations of nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA), as well as lower tissue glutathione (GSH) concentrations and antioxidant enzyme activity (glutathione peroxidase/GSH-Px, glutathione reductase/GR, glutathione-S-transferase/GST, superoxide dismutase/SOD, catalase/CAT). Biochemical analysis showed that emamectin benzoate administration significantly increased serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities, as well as triglyceride, cholesterol, creatinine, uric acid and urea levels, and decreased serum total protein and albumin levels. The histopathological examination of the liver, kidney, brain, heart and testis tissues of the emamectin benzoate-intoxicated rats demonstrated necrotic changes. Baicalin and/or chrysin reversed the biochemical and histopathological alterations induced by emamectin benzoate on these tested organs. Therefore, baicalin and chrysin (alone or in combination) could offer protection against emamectin benzoate-induced toxicity.

Revealing the most effective anticonvulsant part of Malvaviscus arboreus Dill. Ex Cav. and its acute and sub-acute toxicity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Different parts of Malvaviscus arboreus Dill. Ex Cav. (M. arboreus) are traditionally used in the West Region of Cameroon to treat many diseases, including epilepsy.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To determine which part of M. arboreus offers the best anticonvulsant effect, and to assess the acute and sub-acute toxicity of the part of interest.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

the anticonvulsant effect of the aqueous lyophilisate of the decoction of flowers, leaves, stems and roots of M. arboreus at various doses was evaluated and compared on the model of acute epileptic seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) (70 mg/kg), injected 1 h after oral administration of the various extracts. Out of these plant parts, the leaves were then selected to prepare the hydroethanolic extract and its anticonvulsant effect against PTZ at the doses of 122.5, 245 and 490 mg/kg, as well as its acute toxicity were compared with those of the aqueous lyophilisate of the leaves. The anticonvulsant effect of the aqueous lyophilisate of M. arboreus leaves was further evaluated on models of acute epileptic seizures induced by picrotoxin (PIC) (7.5 mg/kg), strychnine (STR) (2.5 mg/kg) and pilocarpine (350 mg/kg). The 28 days sub-acute toxicity, as well as the quantitative phytochemistry and the in vitro antioxidant potential (FRAP, DPPH, ABTS+) of the aqueous lyophilisate of the leaves of M. arboreus were also evaluated.

RESULTS

M. arboreus leaves showed the best anticonvulsant effect and the aqueous lyophilisate was the best extract. The latter significantly protected the animals against convulsions induced by PTZ (71.43%) (p < 0.01), PIC (57.14%) (p < 0.05) and STR (42%) and had no effect on pilocarpine-induced seizures. Furthermore, it showed no acute or sub-acute toxicity, and revealed a high content of flavonoids, saponins, tannins and alkaloids, and antioxidant activity in vitro.

CONCLUSION

The aqueous lyophilisate of the leaves of M. arboreus offers the best anticonvulsant effect on the extraction solvent used, and it would act mainly via a potentiation of the inhibitory systems of the brain (GABA, Glycine). In addition, its richness in bioactive compounds gives it an antioxidant potential, and it is not toxic in acute and sub-acute toxicity. All this justifies at least in part its empirical uses, and makes M. arboreus a candidate for the alternative treatment of epilepsy.

Potential implications of polyphenolic compounds in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are common chronic diseases related to progressive damage to the nervous system. Current neurodegenerative diseases present difficulties and despite extensive research efforts to develop new disease-modifying therapies, there is still no effective treatment for halting the neurodegenerative process. Polyphenols are biologically active organic compounds abundantly found in various plants. It has been reported that plant-derived dietary polyphenols may improve some disease states and promote health. Emerging pieces of evidence indicate that polyphenols are associated with neurodegenerative diseases. This review aims to overview the potential neuroprotective roles of polyphenols in most common neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and ischemic stroke.

Pharmacological effects and therapeutic potential of natural compounds in neuropsychiatric disorders: An update

Neuropsychiatric diseases are a group of disorders that cause significant morbidity and disability. The symptoms of psychiatric disorders include anxiety, depression, eating disorders, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and conduct disorder. Various medicinal plants are frequently used as therapeutics in traditional medicine in different parts of the world. Nowadays, using medicinal plants as an alternative medication has been considered due to their biological safety. Despite the wide range of medications, many patients are unable to tolerate the side effects and eventually lose their response. By considering the therapeutic advantages of medicinal plants in the case of side effects, patients may prefer to use them instead of chemical drugs. Today, the use of medicinal plants in traditional medicine is diverse and increasing, and these plants are a precious heritage for humanity. Investigation about traditional medicine continues, and several studies have indicated the basic pharmacology and clinical efficacy of herbal medicine. In this article, we discuss five of the most important and common psychiatric illnesses investigated in various studies along with conventional therapies and their pharmacological therapies. For this comprehensive review, data were obtained from electronic databases such as MedLine/PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, EMBASE, DynaMed Plus, ScienceDirect, and TRIP database. Preclinical pharmacology studies have confirmed that some bioactive compounds may have beneficial therapeutic effects in some common psychiatric disorders. The mechanisms of action of the analyzed biocompounds are presented in detail. The bioactive compounds analyzed in this review are promising phytochemicals for adjuvant and complementary drug candidates in the pharmacotherapy of neuropsychiatric diseases. Although comparative studies have been carefully reviewed in the preclinical pharmacology field, no clinical studies have been found to confirm the efficacy of herbal medicines compared to FDA-approved medicines for the treatment of mental disorders. Therefore, future clinical studies are needed to accelerate the potential use of natural compounds in the management of these diseases.

Pentylenetetrazole kindling-induced epilepsy rat models: Insight on the severity state, a comparative study

This study aimed to carry out a comparative study of the main models of chronic epilepsy induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-kindling method and to assess the efficacy of sodium valproate, one of the main antiepileptics, on the best epilepsy-inducing kindling model. Two sets of 24 animals were divided into 4 groups of 6 animals and treated as follow: Set 1 included: group 1, control; group 2, the classic kindling PTZ group (UKEOD); group 3, PTZ kindling every other day group with challenge (CKEOD); group 4, PTZ kindling every day group, with challenge (CKED); Set 2 included: group 1, control; group 2, CKEOD group; group 3 and 4, receiving either valproate 200 mg/kg or valproate 300 mg/kg + CKEOD procedure. Results show that CKEOD group significantly reduced the number of injections necessary to reach the fully-kindled state, increased the severity of seizures and improved the stability of seizures. In addition, the CKEOD group significantly increased the level of malondialdehyde and GABA transaminase, reduced the level of reduced glutathione, catalase and GABA. Furthermore, it had no impact on plasma levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALAT) and aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT). Valproate 300 mg/kg significantly protected animals against kindling induced by CKEOD. The kindling model with a challenge dose administered on day 1 (CKEOD) thus allows to induce more severe, more stable chronic epilepsy and in a shorter period of time, and could thus contribute to a better understanding of epilepsy, as well as its uses in drug discovery.

Scutellaria baicalensis and its constituents baicalin and baicalein as antidotes or protective agents against chemical toxicities: a comprehensive review

Scutellaria baicalensis (SB), also known as the Chinese skullcap, has a long history of being used in Chinese medicine to treat a variety of conditions ranging from microbial infections to metabolic syndrome and malignancies. Numerous studies have reported that treatment with total SB extract or two main flavonoids found in its root and leaves, baicalin (BA) and baicalein (BE), can prevent or alleviate the detrimental toxic effects of exposure to various chemical compounds. It has been shown that BA and BE are generally behind the protective effects of SB against toxicants. This paper aimed to review the protective and therapeutic effects of SB and its main components BA and BE against chemical compounds that can cause intoxication after acute or chronic exposure and seriously affect different vital organs including the brain, heart, liver, and kidneys. In this review paper, we had a look into a total of 221 in vitro and in vivo studies from 1995 to 2021 from the scientific databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science which reported protective or therapeutic effects of BA, BE, or SB against drugs and chemicals that one might be exposed to on a professional or accidental basis and compounds that are primarily used to simulate disease models. In conclusion, the protective effects of SB and its flavonoids can be mainly attributed to increase in antioxidants enzymes, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, reduction of inflammatory cytokines, and suppression of apoptosis pathway.

Comparative Studies on the Antioxidant, Antifungal, and Wound Healing Activities of Solenostemma arghel Ethyl Acetate and Methanolic Extracts

Various herbal compounds are used for medical purposes due to their safety, as there are no or minimal side effects. This study was performed to assess the wound healing and antioxidant activities of ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and methanolic extract (MeoH) of Solenostemma arghel (S. arghel). Their antifungal activities were also evaluated against isolated swabs of equine wounds. They underwent GC-MS analysis for the characterization of both extracts. For wound healing evaluation, forty-five male albino rats were divided into three groups; the control group was treated with normal saline, and the other two groups were treated with S. arghel EtOAc and MeoH extract gels, respectively. The wounds were examined clinicopathologically and immunohistochemistry on the 3rd, 7th, and 14th days post-wounding. GC-Ms analysis of S. arghel recorded fifty-one volatile organic compounds (VOCs) within EtOAc extraction and thirty VOCs in MeoH extract. VOCs represented in EtOAc extract showed higher antioxidant activity and better and faster wound healing than VOCs of MeOH extract. The treated groups showed improved wound healing clinically and pathologically in comparison with the control group as they decreased the wound surface area (WSA) and percent (WSA%) and increased the wound contraction percent (WC%), epithelization, fibroblast proliferation with neovascularization, and reduced the inflammatory reaction. Moreover, the treated groups showed higher expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) compared with the control. The EtOAc extract showed higher antifungal activity against Penicillium funiculosum, P. jensenii, M. cinctum, and Candida albicans, which were isolated from infected clinical equine wounds, than MeOH extract. The treated groups showed improved wound healing clinically and pathologically in comparison with the control group as they decreased the wound surface area (WSA) and percent (WSA%) and increased the wound contraction percent (WC%), epithelization, fibroblast proliferation with neovascularization, and reduced the inflammatory reaction. Moreover, the treated groups showed higher expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) compared with the control. Additionally, the two extract gels showed promising healing of equine wounds. In conclusion, the study recommended the use of S. arghel EtOAc extract as it was proven to promote wound healing compared with MeoH extract.

Comparative Review on Effects of Pien Tze Huang and AnGong NiuHuang Pill and their Potential on Treatment of Central Nervous System Diseases

Abstract:

The ancient composite formulae Angong Niuhuang pill and Pien Tze Huang that were used a few hundred years ago to treat febrile disease and inflammation respectively are found to exert effects benefiting other neurological diseases and conditions. This short review introduces the main constituents of the two formulae, looking into both the cumulative synergetic and possible individual effects of each herb or animal apcoien. In essence, the main effects of Angong Niuhuang pill include antiinflammation, antioxidation, anti-cell death, anticonvulsion, antiedema, antipyretic, antithrombotic, antimicrobial (bacteria, viruses, fungi), neuroprotective effects, and cardiovascular protection. The main effects of Pien Tze Huang include antiinflammation, antioxidation, anti-cell death, antithrombotic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective effects, and cardiovascular protection. Comparing both composites, similarities of the effects and part of the components are found, showing some pharmacological evidence. This review casts light on research on the effects of neuroprotective and cardiovascular protective mechanisms as well as treatment mechanisms for cerebral accidents in the integrative medicine perspective.

Baicalin suppresses neuron autophagy and apoptosis by regulating astrocyte polarization in pentylenetetrazol-induced epileptic rats and PC12 cells

Epilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder worldwide, but its entire pathology remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to explore the antiepileptic effect of baicalin (BAL), the main bioactive component of scutellaria. We isolated astrocytes from neonatal rats and astrocytes were identified by glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunostaining. The viability and phenotype of astrocytes were determined by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and immunofluorescence staining, respectively. For investigating the effect of BAL on the autophagy in A1 astrocytes treated PC12 cells, expression of light chain 3B (LC3-B) and sequestosome 1 (P62) was analyzed by immunofluorescence staining and apoptosis by acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) staining, respectively. For animal experiments, pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced epileptic model was used to explore the antiepileptic effect of BAL. The results showed that BAL reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced complement C3 (C3, a marker of A1 astrocytes) + A1 cells and decreased autophagy and apoptosis in PC12 cells. Further findings showed seizure grade and latency were positively correlated with GFAP+/C3 + A1 cells' infiltration in interstitial astrocytes. After BAL treatment, epileptogenesis was ameliorated with decreased A1 astrocytes in the brain and improved behavioral performance. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) showed that the levels of interleukin-1α (IL-1α) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were reduced in the cerebral interstitial site in the BAL group compared to the PTZ group. Western blotting analysis showed that BAL treatment reduced expression of C3, inward rectifier potassium channel Kir4.1, aquaporin-4 (AQP4) in the frontal cortex and Caspase-3, BCL2-associated X protein (Bax) in the hippocampus. In conclusion, these findings suggest that BAL can prevents cognitive and emotional disorders and has antiepileptic effects in rats, which may be associated with suppresses neuron autophagy and apoptosis in the hippocampus via regulate astrocyte phenotypes.

Transcriptome Sequencing Explores the Mechanism of Baicalin on Bone Cancer Pain

Introduction

Bone cancer pain is characterized by persistent pain, usually requiring drugs to relieve pain. Baicalin, a flavonoid compound extracted from Scutellaria baicalensis, which has antioxidant and analgesic effects. But, the effect of baicalin on bone cancer pain is unclear. Thus, this study aimed to explore the mechanism of baicalin on SD rats with bone cancer pain.

Materials and Methods

The MADB-106 breast cancer cells-induced bone pain model was constructed and carried out baicalin treatment. The therapeutic effect of baicalin on bone cancer pain model was observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining and immunofluorescence staining. We also performed transcriptome sequencing analysis of baicalin in the treatment of bone metastases. Also, RT-qPCR and ELISA were used to detect the expression levels of inflammation factors.

Results

After baicalin treatment, osteoclast activation was inhibited and the number of bone trabeculae was increased. Baicalin inhibited the protein expression level of inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and PGE2) in the bone metastases group. Based on the transcriptome sequencing of the bone metastases group and the baicalin treatment group, baicalin inhibited the expression of ALPP, DUSP1, CYR61, ALPPL2, SPP1 and TLR4. RT-qPCR was also used to validate the expression levels of these cytokine genes.

Conclusion

Baicalin had a certain inhibitory effect on the SD rat model of bone metastasis cancer. These insights can guide future research on the molecular mechanism of bone cancer pain and provide a theoretical basis for baicalin in the treatment of bone pain caused by breast cancer in the future.

Baicalin Rescues Cognitive Dysfunction, Mitigates Neurodegeneration, and Exerts Anti-Epileptic Effects Through Activating TLR4/MYD88/Caspase-3 Pathway in Rats

Purpose

This study aims to evaluate the beneficial effects of anti-epileptic mechanisms of baicalin (BA) on cognitive dysfunction and neurodegeneration in pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced epileptic rats.

Methods

First, PTZ-induced epileptic rats were administered intraperitoneally a sub-convulsive dose of PTZ (40 mg/kg) daily, and the seizure susceptibility (the degree of seizures and latency) was evaluated using Racine’s criterion. Then, classical behavioral experiments were performed to test whether BA ameliorated cognitive dysfunction. Neurodegeneration was assessed using Fluoro Jade-B (FJB), and NeuN staining was used to determine whether BA offered a neuroprotective role. After BA had been proven to possess anti-epileptic effects, its possible mechanisms were analyzed through network pharmacology. Finally, the key targets for predictive mechanisms were experimentally verified.

Results

The epileptic model was successfully established, and BA had anti-epileptic effects. Epileptic rats displayed significant cognitive dysfunction, and BA markedly ameliorated cognitive dysfunction. Further, we also discovered that BA treatment mitigated neurodegeneration of the hippocampus CA3 regions, thereby ameliorated cognitive dysfunction of epileptic rats. Subsequent network pharmacology analysis was implemented to reveal a possible mechanism of BA in the anti-epileptic process and the TLR4/MYD88/Caspase-3 pathway was predicted. Finally, experimental studies showed that BA exerted an anti-epileptic effect by activating the TLR4/MYD88/Caspase-3 pathway in PTZ-induced epileptic rats.

Conclusion

In conclusion, BA had a protective effect against PTZ-induced seizures. BA improved cognitive dysfunction and exerted a neuroprotective action. The anti-epileptic effects of BA may be potentially through activation of the TLR4/MYD88/Caspase-3 pathway.

Potential anti-epileptic phytoconstituents: An updated review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Epilepsy is one of the most commonly occurring non-communicable neurological disorder that affects people of all age groups. Around 50 million people globally are epileptic, with 80% cases in developing countries due to lack of access to treatments determined by high cost and poor availability or it can be defined by the fraction of active epileptic patients who are not appropriately being treated. The availability of antiepileptic drugs and their adjuvant therapy in such countries is less than 50% and these are highly susceptible to drug interactions and severe adverse effects. As a result, the use of herbal medicine is increasingly becoming popular.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To provide pharmacological information on the active constituents evaluated in the preclinical study to treat epilepsy with potential to be used as an alternative therapeutic option in future. It also provides affirmation for the development of novel antiepileptic drugs derived from medicinal plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant information on the antiepileptic potential of phytoconstituents in the preclinical study (in-vitro, in-vivo) is provided based on their effect on screening parameters. Besides, relevant information on pharmacology of phytoconstituents, the traditional use of their medicinal plants related to epilepsy and status of phytoconstituents in the clinical study were derived from online databases, including PubMed, Clinicaltrial. gov, The Plant List (TPL, www.theplantlist.org), Science Direct. Articles identified using preset searching syntax and inclusion criteria are presented.

RESULTS

More than 70% of the phytoconstituents reviewed in this paper justified the traditional use of their medicinal plant related to epilepsy by primarily acting on the GABAergic system. Amongst the phytoconstituents, only cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol have been explored for clinical application in epilepsy.

CONCLUSION

The preclinical and clinical data of the phytoconstituents to treat epilepsy and its associated comorbidities provides evidence for the discovery and development of novel antiepileptic drugs from medicinal plants. In terms of efficacy and safety, further randomized and controlled clinical studies are required to understand the complete pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic picture of phytoconstituents. Also, specific botanical source evaluation is needed.

Dietary Flavonoids Interaction with CREB-BDNF Pathway: An Unconventional Approach for Comprehensive Management of Epilepsy

cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) is a key transcriptional regulator that regulates the transcription of genes related with neuronal differentiation, synaptic plasticity, learning and memory. Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), is a CREB dependent gene which plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of epilepsy and central comorbid conditions associated with epilepsy. However, the beneficial or detrimental consequences of CREB-BDNF activation on the induction and/or progression of seizures depend specifically on the region of brain involved and the time of activation. The bioactive molecules that alter the activity of CREB in a way to have specialized effects in different brain regions and neural circuits involved could potentially be utilized for therapeutic purposes. Flavonoids are the polyphenolic compounds which lead to phosphorylation of CREB in the hippocampus, followed by increase in extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) and BDNF. Several members of flavonoid family have also showed suppression of epileptic seizures via interaction with CREB/BDNF pathway. Moreover, epilepsy is often accompanied by a number of behavioural and psychological comorbid conditions that further gets aggravated by the use of conventional antiepileptic drug therapy. Multiple studies have also supported the beneficial effects of flavonoids in cognitive and memory impairments by upregulation of CREB-BDNF pathway. The current review is an attempt to collate the available preclinical and clinical studies to establish the therapeutic potential of various dietary flavonoids in comprehensive management of epilepsy with relation to CREB-BDNF pathway.

Potential Antidepressant Effects of Scutellaria baicalensis, Hericium erinaceus and Rhodiola rosea

Recent studies focused on the pharmacology and feasibility of herbal compounds as a potential strategy to target a variety of human diseases ranging from metabolic to brain disorders. Accordingly, bioactive ingredients which are found within a variety of herbal compounds are reported to produce both neuroprotective and psychotropic activities which may help to combat mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances and cognitive alterations. In the present manuscript, we focus on three herbs which appear effective in mitigating anxiety or depression with favourable risk-benefit profiles, namely Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis), Hericium erinaceus (H. erinaceus) and Rhodiola rosea (R. rosea). These three traditional folk medicinal herbs target the main biochemical events that are implicated in mental disorders, mimicking, to some extent, the mechanisms of action of conventional antidepressants and mood stabilizers with a wide margin of tolerability. In detail, they rescue alterations in neurotransmitter and neuro-endocrine systems, stimulate neurogenesis and the synthesis of neurotrophic factors, and they counteract oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation. Albeit the encouraging results that emerge from both experimental and clinical evidence, further studies are needed to confirm and better understand the mental-health promoting, and specifically, the antidepressant effects of these herbs.

Zebrafish-Based Screening of Antiseizure Plants Used in Traditional Chinese Medicine: Magnolia officinalis Extract and Its Constituents Magnolol and Honokiol Exhibit Potent Anticonvulsant Activity in a Therapy-Resistant Epilepsy Model

With the aim to discover interesting lead compounds that could be further developed into compounds active against pharmacoresistant epilepsies, we first collected 14 medicinal plants used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) against epilepsy. Of the six extracts that tested positive in a pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) behavioral zebrafish model, only the ethanol and acetone extracts from Magnolia officinalis (M. officinalis) also showed effective antiseizure activity in the ethylketopentenoate (EKP) zebrafish model. The EKP model is regarded as an interesting discovery platform to find mechanistically novel antiseizure drugs, as it responds poorly to a large number of marketed anti-epileptics. We then demonstrated that magnolol and honokiol, two major constituents of M. officinalis, displayed an effective behavioral and electrophysiological antiseizure activity in both the PTZ and the EKP models. Out of six structural analogues tested, only 4-O-methylhonokiol was active and to a lesser extent tetrahydromagnolol, whereas the other analogues (3,3'-dimethylbiphenyl, 2,2'-biphenol, 2-phenylphenol, and 3,3',5,5'-tetra-tert-butyl-[1,1'-biphenyl]-2,2'-diol) were not consistently active in the aforementioned assays. Finally, magnolol was also active in the 6 Hz psychomotor mouse model, an acute therapy-resistant rodent model, thereby confirming the translation of the findings from zebrafish larvae to mice in the field of epilepsy. We also developed a fast and automated power spectral density (PSD) analysis of local field potential (LFP) recordings. The PSD results are in agreement with the visual analysis of LFP recordings using Clampfit software and manually counting the epileptiform events. Taken together, screening extracts of single plants employed in TCM, using a combination of zebrafish- and mouse-based assays, allowed us to identify allyl biphenol as a chemical scaffold for the future development of compounds with potential activity against therapy-resistant epilepsies.

Raloxifene potentiates the effect of fluoxetine against maximal electroshock induced seizures in mice

The evidence to guide clinicians regarding rationale polytherapy with current antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) is lacking, and current practice recommendations are largely empirical.  The excessive drug loading with combinatorial therapies of existing AEDs are associated with escalated neurotoxicity, and that emergence of pharmacoresistant seizures couldn't be averted. In pursuit of judicious selection of novel AEDs in combinatorial therapies with mechanism based evidences, standardized dose of raloxifene, fluoxetine, bromocriptine and their low dose combinations, were experimentally tested for their impact on maximal electroshock (MES) induced tonic hind limb extension (THLE) in mice. Hippocampal neuropeptide Y (NPY) levels, oxidative stress and histopathological studies were undertaken. The results suggest the potentiating effect of 4 mg/kg raloxifene on 14 mg/kg fluoxetine against MES induced THLE, as otherwise monotherapy with 4 mg/kg raloxifene was unable to produce an effect. The results also depicted better efficacy than carbamazepine (20 mg/kg), standard AED. Most profoundly, MES-induced significant (P < 0.001) reduction in hippocampal NPY levels, that were escalated insignificantly with the duo-drug combination, suggesting some other mechanism in mitigation of electroshock induced seizures. These results were later corroborated with assays to assess oxidative stress and neuronal damage. In conclusion, the results demonstrated the propitious therapeutic benefit of duo-drug low dose combination of drugs; raloxifene and fluoxetine, with diverse mode of actions fetching greater effectiveness in the management of generalized tonic clonic seizures (GTCS).

Awareness and current knowledge of epilepsy

Epilepsy is a severe neural disorder that affects approximately fifty million individuals globally. Despite the fact that for most of the people with epilepsy, convulsions are better controlled by current accessible antiepileptic medicines, yet there are more than 30% of individuals affected with medically intractable epilepsy and around 30-40% of all patients with epilepsy affected by many adverse reactions and convulsion resistance to the present antiepileptic drugs. Consequently, various scientists attempt to develop new strategies to treat epilepsy, for instance, to find out novel antiepileptic ingredients from traditional medicines. This work aims to present a complete summary of natural medicines prescribed as antiepileptic agents all over the world by ethnic groups and different tribes. We undertook an extensive bibliographic analysis by searching peer reviewed papers and classical textbooks and further consulting well accepted worldwide scientific databases. We carried out PubMed, EMbase and CENTRAL searches by means of terms such as "antiepileptic" and "anti-convulsant" activity of plants. Medicinal plants have been prescribed to treat epilepsy and have been recognized as antiepileptic medicines. In this review, a variety of herbs have been reviewed for thorough studies such as Cuminum cyminum, Butea monosperma, Solanum americanum, Anacyclus pyrethrum, Leonotis leonurus, Elaeocarpus ganitrus and Angelica archangelica. This paper shows that it was high time experimental studies are increased to obtain novel potential active principles from medicinal plants. Plant extracts and their chemical constituents should be further evaluated to clarify their mechanisms of action. This paper provides a solid base upon which to further investigate the clinical efficacy of medicinal plants that are both currently prescribed by physicians as traditional antiepileptic agents, but also could be effective as an antiepileptic drug with further research and study.

Effects of Huazhuo Jiedu Shugan Decoction on Cognitive and Emotional Disorders in a Rat Model of Epilepsy: Possible Involvement of AC-cAMP-CREB Signaling and NPY Expression

Background

Huazhuo Jiedu Shugan decoction (HJSD), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has been used to treat epileptic seizures for many years. Some ingredients in these herbs have been demonstrated to be effective for the treatment of brain damage caused by epilepsy.

Aim of the Study

The object of the study is to determine the effects of HJSD on cognitive and emotional disorders in a rat model of epilepsy.

Materials and Methods

After a predetermined time period, rats were intraperitoneally injected with pentylenetetrazol and observed in different phases of convulsions. The cognitive and emotional changes in the epileptic rats were assessed using behavioral and immunohistochemical tests.

Results

Compared with the epilepsy group, the seizure grade was reduced and seizure latency was prolonged following HJSD-H treatment (P < 0.01). Compared with the control group, the epilepsy group displayed marked worse performance on the animal behavior tests (P < 0.05) and the HJSD-H group displayed improved behavioral performance (P < 0.05). After HJSD-H treatment, the expression of adenylate cyclase (AC), cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB), and neuropeptide Y (NPY) immunoreactive cells markedly increased in the hippocampus, compared with that of the epilepsy group (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

The current results demonstrate that HJSD treatment in epileptic rats markedly inhibits epileptic seizures and improves cognitive and emotional disorders, which may be related to the regulation of AC-cAMP-CREB signaling and NPY expression in the hippocampus. The effects of the HJSD treatment may provide a foundation for the use of HJSD as a prescription medicinal herb in the TCM for the treatment of epilepsy.

Perspective: Therapeutic Potential of Flavonoids as Alternative Medicines in Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder that affects many people worldwide. Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common and most studied type of epilepsy, but the pathological mechanisms underlying this condition are poorly understood. More than 20 antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) have been developed and used for the treatment of epilepsy; however, 30% of patients still experience uncontrolled epilepsy and associated comorbidities, which impair their quality of life. In addition, various side effects have been reported for AEDs, such as drowsiness, unsteadiness, dizziness, blurred or double vision, tremor (shakiness), greater risk of infections, bruising, and bleeding. Thus, critical medical needs remain unmet for patients with uncontrolled epilepsy. Flavonoids belong to a subclass of polyphenols that are widely present in fruits, vegetables, and certain beverages. Recently, many studies have reported that some flavonoids elicit various beneficial effects in patients with epilepsy without causing the side effects associated with conventional medical therapies. Moreover, flavonoids may have a property of regulating microRNA expression associated with inflammation and cell survival. These findings suggest that flavonoids, which are more effective but impose fewer adverse effects than conventional AEDs, could be used in the treatment of epilepsy.

Neuro-pharmacological evaluation of anticonvulsant and neuroprotective activity of Cocculus laurifolius leaves in wistar rats

The aim of the study was to evaluate the anticonvulsant and neuroprotective activity of Cocculus laurifolius D.C leaves in albino wistar rats against strychnine induced convulsions. Initially the extract was investigated for acute oral toxicity testing in order to examine any signs of toxicity and mortality. For anticonvulsant activity, the ethanolic extract was evaluated at doses 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o. against strychnine induced convulsions model, at 1, 7, 15 and 30th day of treatment. Meanwhile, the neuroprotective effect of the extract was investigated via histopathological assessment. Cocculus laurifolius (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) exhibited anticonvulsant activity as indicated by significant delay in the onset of convulsions and time to death after strychnine induced convulsions. Similarly, significant reduction in the duration of convulsions and percentage of mortality was observed by ethanolic extract (200 and 400 mg/kg p.o.) at 1, 7, 15 and 30th day of test sessions. Furthermore, Cocculus laurifolius leaves (200 and 400 mg/kg p.o.) also exhibited neuroprotective effect with considerable preserved neuronal structures and significant decrease in neuronal apoptosis, in comparison with control. The results obtained from the present study indicate that ethanolic extract of Cocculus laurifolius leaves possess potential anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effect against strychnine induced convulsions. Therefore, it can be concluded that Cocculus laurifolius leaves may be a valuable in management of epilepsy, however further studies are required on large number of animals to confirm these findings.

Baicalein Exerts Neuroprotective Effects in FeCl3-Induced Posttraumatic Epileptic Seizures via Suppressing Ferroptosis

Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is a prevalent type of acquired epilepsy secondary to traumatic brain injury, and is characterized by repeated seizures. Traditional antiepileptic drugs have minimal response in preventing posttraumatic epileptic seizures. It is essential for the development of new therapeutic strategy. Our previous work disclosed a potent neuroprotective role of baicalein, a flavonoid extracted from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, against inherited epilepsy in rats. Whether baicalein has protective potential in posttraumatic epileptic seizures and the possible molecular mechanism remain elusive. Additionally, the brain is vulnerable to lipid peroxidation-induced damage due to high consumption of oxygen and abundant polyunsaturated fatty acids in neuronal membranes. Our present investigation aimed to elucidate whether baicalein exerts neuroprotective effects on posttraumatic epileptic seizures by inhibiting ferroptosis, a newly discovered lipid peroxidation-dependent cell death modality. We found that baicalein significantly reduced seizure score, number of seizures, and average seizure duration in an iron chloride (FeCl₃)-induced PTE mouse model. The neuroprotective effect of baicalein was also validated in a ferric ammonium citrate (FAC)-induced HT22 hippocampal neuron damage model. Moreover, in vitro, baicalein could remarkably decrease ferroptotic indices (lipid reactive oxygen species, 4-hydroxynonenal, and prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2) and inhibit the expression of 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LOX) in an iron-induced HT22 cell damage model. These findings were also validated in a mouse PTE model. It was concluded that baicalein exerted neuroprotective effects against posttraumatic epileptic seizures via suppressing ferroptosis and 12/15-LOX was likely to be involved in baicalein’s neuroprotection.

Baicalein improves cognitive deficits and hippocampus impairments in temporal lobe epilepsy rats

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a chronic neurological disorder that is a refractory disease. Baicalein possesses various pharmacological activities, including neuroprotection in neurodegenerative disease. However, whether baicalein is protective in the treatment of TLE is not determined. Therefore, the present study investigated the role of baicalein in the treatment of TLE. Baicalein was injected intraperitoneally to TLE rats for two weeks after the onset of spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS). Rats were observed for the occurrence of SRS, and cognitive and hippocampus injuries were evaluated. Oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines were measured. Corticosterone and its receptor, actin-associated protein F-actin and cofilin-1 were investigated in the brains of epileptic rats. Baicalein significantly improved cognition and reduced hippocampus damage and mossy fibre sprouting in TLE rats without obvious SRS suppression. Baicalein produced excellent anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects in TLE rats. Baicalein restored the disruption of the glucocorticoid signal pathway and actin-associated protein in TLE rats. These results suggest that the neuroprotective effects of baicalein on cognition and the hippocampus are associated with the suppression of oxidative stress and inflammation and the regulation of the glucocorticoid pathway and actin-associated protein in TLE rats. This evidence supports the use of baicalein as an adjuvant agent for epilepsy treatment.

Baicalin regulates the dopamine system to control the core symptoms of ADHD

We aimed to test the therapeutic effects of baicalin on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in an animal model and to explain the potential mechanism. We investigated the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of baicalin in a spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) model of ADHD depending on the dopamine (DA) deficit theory. In this study, fifty SHRs were randomly divided into five groups: methylphenidate (MPH), baicalin (50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, or 150 mg/kg), and saline-treated. Ten Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats were used as controls. All rats were orally administered the treatment for four weeks. Motor activity, spatial learning and memory ability were assessed with the open-field and Morris water-maze tests. The mRNA and protein levels of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), synaptosomal-associated protein of molecular mass 25kD (SNAP25) and synataxin 1a in synaptosomes were detected with real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Western blot. In addition, DA levels were measured in the prefrontal cortex and striatum. The results indicated that both MPH and baicalin at doses of 150 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg significantly decreased the hyperactivity and improved the spatial learning memory deficit in the SHRs and increased the synaptosomal mRNA and protein levels of TH, SNAP25, VMAT2 and synataxin 1a compared with saline treatment. MPH significantly increased DA levels in both the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum, while baicalin significantly increased DA levels only in the striatum. The results of the present study showed that baicalin treatment was effective for controlling the core symptoms of ADHD. Baicalin increased DA levels only in the striatum, which suggested that baicalin may target the striatum. The increased DA levels may partially be attributed to the increased mRNA and protein expression of TH, SNAP25, VMAT2, and syntaxin 1a. Therefore, these results suggested that the pharmacological effects of baicalin were associated with the synthesis, vesicular localization, and release of DA and might be effective in treating ADHD. However, further studies are required to better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying these findings.

Neuroprotective Strategies for Neurological Disorders by Natural Products: An update

Nature has bestowed mankind with surplus resources (natural products) on land and water. Natural products have a significant role in the prevention of disease and boosting of health in humans and animals. These natural products have been experimentally documented to possess various biological properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activities. In vitro and in vivo studies have further established the usefulness of natural products in various preclinical models of neurodegenerative disorders. Natural products include phytoconstituents, like polyphenolic antioxidants, found in herbs, fruits, nuts, vegetables and also in marine and freshwater flora. These phytoconstituents may potentially suppress neurodegeneration and improve memory as well as cognitive functions of the brain. Also, they are known to play a pivotal role in the prevention and cure of different neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease and other neuronal disorders. The large-scale neuro-pharmacological activities of natural products have been documented due to the result of either the inhibition of inflammatory processes, or the up-regulation of various cell survival proteins or a combination of both. Due to the scarcity of human studies on neuroprotective effects of natural products, this review focuses on the various established activities of natural products in in vitro and in vivo preclinical models, and their potential neuro-therapeutic applications using the available knowledge in the literature.

The Phytochemistry of Cherokee Aromatic Medicinal Plants

Background: Native Americans have had a rich ethnobotanical heritage for treating diseases, ailments, and injuries. Cherokee traditional medicine has provided numerous aromatic and medicinal plants that not only were used by the Cherokee people, but were also adopted for use by European settlers in North America. Methods: The aim of this review was to examine the Cherokee ethnobotanical literature and the published phytochemical investigations on Cherokee medicinal plants and to correlate phytochemical constituents with traditional uses and biological activities. Results: Several Cherokee medicinal plants are still in use today as herbal medicines, including, for example, yarrow (Achillea millefolium), black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), and blue skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora). This review presents a summary of the traditional uses, phytochemical constituents, and biological activities of Cherokee aromatic and medicinal plants. Conclusions: The list is not complete, however, as there is still much work needed in phytochemical investigation and pharmacological evaluation of many traditional herbal medicines.

Treadmill exercise improves memory function by inhibiting hippocampal apoptosis in pilocarpine-induced epileptic rats

Epilepsy is characterized by recurrent seizures and loss of neurons with abnormal rhythmic firing in the brains. In the present study, we investigated the effect of treadmill exercise on memory function in relation with cell proliferation and apoptosis in the hippocampus using pilocarpine-induced seizure rats. Epilepsy was initiated by intraperitoneal injection of pilocarpine hydrochloride. The rats in the exercise group were forced to run on a motorized treadmill for 30 min once a day for 2 weeks. In the present results, treadmill exercise alleviated short-term and spatial learning memory impairments in the epileptic rats. Treadmill exercise suppressed neuronal degeneration and enhanced neuronal maturation in the epileptic rats. Treadmill exercise suppressed cell proliferation and apoptosis in the epileptic rats. Treadmill exercise alleviated pilocarpine-induced memory impairments and suppressed neuronal loss in the hippocampus through down-regulation of apoptosis. These findings offer a possibility that treadmill exercise may provide a preventive or therapeutic value to the epilepsy-induced learning and memory impairments.

Rifampicin ameliorates lithium-pilocarpine-induced seizures, consequent hippocampal damage and memory deficit in rats: Impact on oxidative, inflammatory and apoptotic machineries

Epilepsy is one of the serious neurological sequelae of bacterial meningitis. Rifampicin, the well-known broad spectrum antibiotic, is clinically used for chemoprophylaxis of meningitis. Besides its antibiotic effects, rifampicin has been proven to be an effective neuroprotective candidate in various experimental models of neurological diseases. In addition, rifampicin was found to have promising antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects. Herein, we investigated the anticonvulsant effect of rifampicin at experimental meningitis dose (20 mg/kg, i.p.) using lithium-pilocarpine model of status epilepticus (SE) in rats. Additionally, we studied the effect of rifampicin on seizure induced histopathological, neurochemical and behavioral abnormalities. Our study showed that rifampicin pretreatment attenuated seizure activity and the resulting hippocampal insults marked by hematoxylin and eosin. Markers of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and apoptosis were evaluated, in the hippocampus, 24 h after SE induction. We found that rifampicin pretreatment suppressed oxidative stress as indicated by normalized malondialdehyde and glutathione levels. Rifampicin pretreatment attenuated SE-induced neuroinflammation and decreased the hippocampal expression of interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, nuclear factor kappa-B, and cyclooxygenase-2. Moreover, rifampicin mitigated SE-induced neuronal apoptosis as indicated by fewer positive cytochrome c immunostained cells and lower caspase-3 activity in the hippocampus. Furthermore, Morris water maze testing at 7 days after SE induction showed that rifampicin pretreatment can improve cognitive dysfunction. Therefore, rifampicin, currently used in the management of meningitis, has a potential additional advantage of ameliorating its epileptic sequelae.

Neuroprotective and Cognitive Enhancement Potentials of Baicalin: A Review

Neurodegenerative diseases are a heterogeneous group of disorders that are characterized by the gradual loss of neurons. The development of effective neuroprotective agents to prevent and control neurodegenerative diseases is specifically important. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in selecting flavonoid compounds as potential neuroprotective agents, owing to their high effectiveness with low side effects. Baicalin is one of the important flavonoid compounds, which is mainly isolated from the root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (an important Chinese medicinal herb). In recent years, a number of studies have shown that baicalin has a potent neuroprotective effect in various in vitro and in vivo models of neuronal injury. In particular, baicalin effectively prevents neurodegenerative diseases through various pharmacological mechanisms, including antioxidative stress, anti-excitotoxicity, anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, stimulating neurogenesis, promoting the expression of neuronal protective factors, etc. This review mainly focuses on the neuroprotective and cognitive enhancement effects of baicalin. The aim of the present review is to compile all information in relation to the neuroprotective and cognitive enhancement effects of baicalin and its molecular mechanisms of action in various in vitro and in vivo experimental models.

Excavating Anticonvulsant Compounds from Prescriptions of Traditional Chinese Medicine in the Treatment of Epilepsy

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has a long history and been widely used in prevention and treatment of epilepsy in China. This paper is intended to review the advances in the active anticonvulsant compounds isolated from herbs in the prescription of TCM in the treatment of epilepsy. These compounds were introduced with the details including classification, CAS number specific structure and druggability data. Meanwhile, much of the research in these compounds in the last two decades has shown that they exhibited favorable pharmacological properties in treatment of epilepsy both in in vivo and in vitro models. In addition, in this present review, the evaluation of the effects of the anticonvulsant classical TCM prescriptions is discussed. According to these rewarding pharmacological effects and chemical substances, the prescription of TCM herbs could be an effective therapeutic strategy for epilepsy patients, and also could be a promising source for the development of new drugs.

Baicalin reverses the impairment of synaptogenesis induced by dopamine burden via the stimulation of GABAAR-TrkB interaction in minimal hepatic encephalopathy

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that D1 receptor (D₁R) activation reduces GABA_A receptor (GABA_AR) current, and baicalin (BAI) displays therapeutic efficacy in diseases involving cognitive impairment.

METHODS

We investigated the mechanisms by which BAI could improve DA-induced minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) using immunoblotting, immunofluorescence, and co-immunoprecipitation.

RESULTS

BAI did not induce toxicity on the primary cultured neurons. And no obvious toxicity of BAI to the brain was found in rats. DA activated D₁R/dopamine and adenosine 3'5'-monophosphate-regulated phospho-protein (DARPP32) to reduce the GABA_AR current; BAI treatment did not change the D₁R/DARPP32 levels but blocked DA-induced reduction of GABA_AR levels in primary cultured neurons. DA decreased the interaction of GABA_AR with TrkB and the expression of downstream AKT, which was blocked by BAI treatment. Moreover, BAI reversed the decrease in the expression of GABA_AR/TrkB/AKT and prevented the impairment of synaptogenesis and memory deficits in MHE rats.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that BAI has neuroprotective and synaptoprotective effects on MHE which are not related to upstream D₁R/DARPP32 signaling, but to the targeting of downstream GABA_AR signaling to TrkB.

[Effect of baicalin on behavioral characteristics of rats with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of baicalin on the behavioral characteristics of rats with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and to provide a basis for further research on baicalin in the treatment of ADHD.

METHODS

A total of 40 SHR rats were randomly divided into model group, methylphenidate hydrochloride (MPH) group, and low-, medium-, and high-dose baicalin groups, with 8 rats in each group. Eight WKY rats were selected as normal control group. The rats in the MPH group (0.07 mg/mL) and the low- (3.33 mg/mL), medium- (6.67 mg/mL), and high-dose (10 mg/mL) baicalin groups were given the corresponding drugs (1.5 mL/100 g) by gavage twice a day, and those in the normal control group and the model group were given an equal volume of normal saline by gavage twice a day. The course of treatment was 4 weeks for all groups. The open field test was performed to observe total moving distance and average moving speed on day 0 of experiment and at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after gavage and to evaluate the control effects of drugs on hyperactivity and impulsive behavior. The Morris water maze test was used to observe the latency, time spent in the target quadrant, and number of platform crossings and to evaluate the effects of drugs on attention.

RESULTS

The open field test showed that the model group and the drug treatment groups had a significantly longer total moving distance and a significantly higher average moving speed than the normal control group on day 0 (P<0.05). On day 7, the MPH group had significant reductions in total moving distance and average moving speed compared with the model group (P<0.05). On day 14, the MPH group and the high-dose baicalin group had significant reductions in total moving distance and average moving speed compared with the model group (P<0.05). The data on days 21 and 28 showed that compared with the model group, the low-, medium-, and high-dose baicalin groups had gradual reductions in total moving distance and average moving speed (P<0.05). The water maze test showed that compared with the model group, the MPH group and the medium- and high-dose baicalin groups had a significantly longer time spent in the target quadrant (P<0.05), and the MPH group and the high-dose baicalin group had a significantly higher proportion of the moving distance in the target quadrant in total moving distance (P<0.05). The high-dose baicalin group had the highest number of platform crossings among all groups (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Both baicalin and MPH can regulate the motor ability and learning and memory abilities of SHR rats with ADHD and thus control the core symptoms of ADHD, i.e., hyperactivity, impulsive behavior, and inattention. Baicalin exerts its effect in a dose-dependent manner, and high-dose baicalin has the most significant effect, but compared with MPH, it needs a longer time to play its therapeutic effect.

Brain Uptake of Bioactive Flavones in Scutellariae Radix and Its Relationship to Anxiolytic Effect in Mice

Scutellariae Radix (SR) and its bioactive flavones elicit a variety of effects in the brain. However, the brain uptake of individual SR flavones and its relationship to the elicited effects after SR administration remain unknown. Moreover, previous studies seldom measured pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic outcomes simultaneously. In the current study, the brain uptake of six major SR flavones and the anxiolytic behavior following oral administration of a SR extract at two clinically relevant doses (600 and 1200 mg/kg twice daily) were simultaneously investigated in mice (n = 18 per group). Brain and plasma concentrations of the flavones were measured by LC-MS/MS, while the anxiolytic effect was evaluated using the elevated plus maze. To further investigate the mechanism behind the differential brain uptake of the six SR flavones, these flavones were separately administered to mice at an equivalent molar oral dose (n = 6). The brain tissue bindings of the SR flavones were also measured with the in vitro brain slice method. Our results indicated that all six SR flavones including three aglycons (baicalein, wogonin, and oroxylin A) and three glucuronides (baicalin, wogonoside, and oroxyloside) could pass through the blood-brain barrier, with brain concentrations ranging from 7.9 to 224.0 pmol/g. It provided novel evidence that oroxylin A had the highest brain uptake among the six SR flavones regardless of its limited content in SR extract, in which 3.6-3.9% of the administered oroxylin A dose was present in the brain 6 h postdosing and with a brain-to-plasma ratio of 0.42-0.46. Although SR extract contains flavones that are positive modulators of the benzodiazepine binding site of GABA_A receptors (baicalein, wogonin, and baicalin), our behavioral study for the first time indicated that SR extract (a mixture of six flavones) did not elicit significant anxiolytic effect at the studied doses. Oroxylin A also demonstrated the highest brain uptake when the six flavones were separately administered to mice, and the highest affinity to brain tissues in the in vitro tissue binding assay. The high brain uptake of oroxylin A, a GABA_A antagonist which had been reported to antagonize diazepam-induced anxiolytic effect, might have suppressed the anxiolytic effects of the other flavones and account for the lack of overall anxiolytic effect of SR extract. The current study illustrates the importance of monitoring pharmacokinetics in a behavioral study, particularly for herbal medicines which consist of multiple components that might have different or even opposite pharmacological effects on the same target.

Protective Effects of Otophylloside N on Pentylenetetrazol-Induced Neuronal Injury In vitro and In vivo

Approximately 30% of epileptic patients worldwide are medically unable to control their seizures. In addition, repeated epileptic seizures generally lead to neural damage. Pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) is a clinical circulatory and respiratory stimulant that is experimentally used to mimic epileptic convulsion in epilepsy research. Here, we systematically explore the neuroprotective effects of a pure compound isolated from Cynanchum otophyllum Schneid (Qingyangshen), Otophylloside N (OtoN), against PTZ-induced neuronal injury. We used three models: in vitro primary cortical neurons, in vivo mice, and in vivo zebrafish. Our results revealed that OtoN treatment may attenuate PTZ-induced morphology changes, cell death, LDH efflux in embryonic neuronal cells of C57BL/6J mice, and convulsive behavior in zebrafish. Additionally, our Western blot and RT-PCR results demonstrated that OtoN may attenuate PTZ-induced apoptosis and neuronal activation in neuronal cells, mice, and zebrafish. OtoN may reduce PTZ-induced cleavage of poly ADP-ribose polymerase and upregulation of the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and decrease the expression level of c-Fos. This study is the first investigation of the neuroprotective effects of OtoN, which might be developed as a novel antiepileptic drug.