The Chemical Composition, Pharmacological Effects, Clinical Applications and Market Analysis of Gastrodia Elata

Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities, and Applications of Polysaccharides from Gastrodia elata: A Review

Gastrodia elata Blume is a well-known medicinal and edible plant in China, celebrated for its extensive history in traditional medicine and functional food applications. Among its key bioactive components, polysaccharides have drawn significant attention from researchers in the fields of health food and medicine due to their potential health benefits. Recent studies have revealed various biological activities associated with G. elata polysaccharides, including antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-aging, immune regulation, and neuroprotective properties. However, a comprehensive overview of these polysaccharides remains elusive. Specifically, relationship between the structure and activity of G. elata polysaccharides, along with the mechanisms through which various types exert their biological effects, has yet to be fully elucidated. This knowledge gap may impede the further development and utilization of G. elata polysaccharides in medicine, health products, food, and cosmetics. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in extraction, separation, purification, biological activities, and applications of G. elata polysaccharides. Additionally, it delves into structure-activity relationships and pharmacological mechanisms of these polysaccharides, giving support for future research to enhance their application in medicine, food, health products, and cosmetics.

Unraveling the key mechanisms of Gastrodia elata continuous cropping obstacles: soil bacteria Massilia, Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia, and Dyella along with soil metabolites 4-hydroxy-benzenemethanol and N-(2-butyl)-N-octadecyl-, ethyl ester as crucial indicators

Background

Tian-ma (Gastrodia elata) is a traditional medicinal herb found in China. It is used in healthy food and to treat various diseases, therefore cultivated extensively in southwest China. However, continuous cropping of this species has led to various obstacles, such as microbial disease and pest infestation, significantly affecting the production and development of valuable medicinal and food resources. As per the growth habit, soil is presumed to be the primary factor contributing to these obstacles, despite the known issues of continuous cropping obstacles in Gastrodia elata, such as microbial disease, there is a lack of comprehensive understanding of the specific soil bacterial communities and metabolites involved in these processes.

Methods

We analyzed soil samples collected during the year of Tian-ma cultivation (0 Year), after the Tian-ma harvest (1 Year), after two years (2 Year), and three years (3 Year) of fallowing post-cultivation using soil 16S rRNA metabarcoding sequencing by illumina platform and metabolomics (GC-MS/MS). Soil sample collected from the uncultivated field was used as the control (CK).

Results

Metabarcoding sequencing showed high bacterial alpha diversity during the cultivation of Tian-ma (0 Year) and the period of deterioration of soil bacterial community. (1 Year), with decreased anaerobic bacterial abundance and increased copiotrophic bacterial abundance. Bacteria associated with sulfur metabolism also showed increased abundance during the year of cropping obstacles. Further metabolomics approach identified 4-hydroxy-benzenemethanol as an indicator of Tian-ma continuous cropping obstacles. Besides, metabolites of the carbohydrate class were found to be the most abundant during the occurrence of continuous cropping obstacles of Gastrodia elata, suggesting that regulation of soil microbial diversity may be a critical factor in addressing these obstacles. Finally, the correlation analysis indicated a positive association between the abundance of some metabolite, e.g., carbamic acid, N-(2-butyl)-N-octadecyl-, ethyl ester detected after Tian-ma cultivation and the abundance of bacteria capable of degrading toxic metabolites, such as Massilia, Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia, and Dyella.

Conclusion

This study has revealed the specific soil bacteria and metabolic factors related to the continuous cropping obstacles of Gastrodia elata. These findings not only deepen our understanding of the continuous cropping issues but also pave the way for developing effective strategies to overcome them.

Physicochemical and microbiological evaluation of treated Gastrodia elata with combination of slightly acidic electrolyzed water and lithium magnesium silicate under certain temperatures and different storage periods

This study aimed to investigate the impact of slightly acidic electrolyzed water combined with lithium magnesium silicate hydrosol on the quality of fresh slices of Gastrodia elata under varying storage temperatures, including room temperature fresh slices of Gastrodia elata 25 °C and 37 °C. Fresh slices of Gastrodia elata 25 and 37 samples were stored for 13 days and extensively analyzed for color, weight loss, decay index, bacterial count, vitamin C, and polysaccharide contents during different storage periods. The findings revealed that the slightly acidic electrolyzed water + hydrosol treatment notably decreased weight loss and decay index compared to distilled water and slightly acidic electrolyzed water treatments. Moreover, fresh slices of Gastrodia elata treated with slightly acidic electrolyzed water  + hydrosol exhibited untraceable bacterial counts after 3 days, with counts starting to increase after 7 days of storage. The bacterial counts rose from 3.25 to 5.36 and from 4.13 to 5.79 log CFU/g under both storage conditions. The application of slightly acidic electrolyzed water + hydrosol resulted in reduced chromaticity values of L*, a*, and b* on the Gastrodia elata surface, along with a lower percentage loss of polysaccharide contents and vitamin C compared to distilled water and slightly acidic electrolyzed water treatments. These results suggested that Gastrodia elata treated with slightly acidic electrolyzed water + hydrosol maintained its quality characteristics and nutritional attributes, exhibiting greater stability during storage.

Diversity of Trichoderma species associated with the black rot disease of Gastrodia elata, including four new species

Introduction

Trichoderma species establish symbiotic relationships with plants through both parasitic and mutualistic mechanisms. While some Trichoderma species act as plant pathogenic fungi, others utilize various strategies to protect and enhance plant growth.

Methods

Phylogenetic positions of new species of Trichoderma were determined through multi-gene analysis relying on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of the ribosomal DNA, the translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1-α) gene, and the RNA polymerase II (rpb2) gene. Additionally, pathogenicity experiments were conducted, and the aggressiveness of each isolate was evaluated based on the area of the cross-section of the infected site.

Results

In this study, 13 Trichoderma species, including 9 known species and 4 new species, namely, T. delicatum, T. robustum, T. perfasciculatum, and T. subulatum were isolated from the diseased tubers of Gastrodia elata in Yunnan, China. Among the known species, T. hamatum had the highest frequency. T. delicatum belonged to the Koningii clade. T. robustum and T. perfasciculatum were assigned to the Virens clade. T. subulatum emerged as a new member of the Spirale clade. Pathogenicity experiments were conducted on the new species T. robustum, T. delicatum, and T. perfasciculatum, as well as the known species T. hamatum, T. atroviride, and T. harzianum. The infective abilities of different Trichoderma species on G. elata varied, indicating that Trichoderma was a pathogenic fungus causing black rot disease in G. elata.

Discussion

This study provided the morphological characteristics of new species and discussed the morphological differences with phylogenetically proximate species, laying the foundation for research aimed at preventing and managing diseases that affect G. elata.

Research progress of Gastrodia elata Blume polysaccharides: a review of chemical structures and biological activities

Gastrodia elata Blume (G. elata), listed as one of the 34 precious Chinese medicines, servers a dual purpose as both a medicinal herb and a food source. Polysaccharide is the main active ingredient in G. elata, which has pharmacological activities such as immune regulation, anti-oxidation, anti-cancer, anti-aging, neuroprotection and antibacterial activity and so on. The biological activities of G. elata polysaccharide (GPs) is closely related to its chemical structures. However, no a review has synthetically summarized the chemical structures and pharmacological activities of GPs. This study delves into the chemical structures, pharmacological action of GPs, offering insights for the future development an application of these compounds.

Gastrodin: a comprehensive pharmacological review

Tianma is the dried tuber of Gastrodia elata Blume (G. elata), which is frequently utilized in clinical practice as a traditional Chinese medicine. Gastrodin (GAS) is the main active ingredient of Tianma, which has good pharmacological activity. Therefore, for the first time, this review focused on the extraction, synthesis, pharmacological effects, and derivatives of GAS and to investigate additional development options for GAS. The use of microorganisms to create GAS is a promising method. GAS has good efficacy in the treatment of neurological diseases, cardiovascular diseases, endocrine diseases, and liver diseases. GAS has significant anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, vascular protective, blood sugar lowering, lipid-regulating, analgesic, anticancer, and antiviral effects. The mechanism involves various signaling pathways such as Nrf2, NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, and AMPK. In addition, the derivatives of GAS and biomaterials synthesized by GAS and PU suggested a broader application of GAS. The research on GAS is thoroughly summarized in this paper, which has useful applications for tackling a variety of disorders and exhibits good development value.

Evaluating How Different Drying Techniques Change the Structure and Physicochemical and Flavor Properties of Gastrodia elata

We evaluated the drying characteristics and structure, as well as the physicochemical and flavor properties, of G. elata treated by hot-air drying (HAD), vacuum drying (VD), freeze drying (FD), microwave drying (MD), and microwave vacuum drying (MVD). We found that MD and MVD showed the shortest drying times, while FD and MVD were able to better retain the active ingredients and color of the samples. However, the different drying methods did not change the internal structure of G. elata, and its main components did not fundamentally change. In addition, E-nose and HS-SPME-GC-MS effectively differentiated the volatile components, and 36 compounds were detected by HS-SPME-GC-MS. Of these samples, alcohols and aldehydes were the main substances identified. In particular, MVD samples possessed the most species of organic volatiles, but the FD method effectively eliminated pungent odors from the G. elata. Overall, MVD shows the most obvious advantages, improving drying rate while maintaining the original shape, color, and active components in G. elata. Ultimately, MVD is the preferred method to obtain high-quality dried G. elata, and our drying-method characterizations can be used to investigate similar structural and chemical changes to similar herbs in the future.

Analyses of Multilocus Sequences and Morphological Features Reveal Ilyonectria Species Associated with Black Rot Disease of Gastrodia elata

Black rot is a common disease of Gastrodia elata, causing serious threats to G. elata production. In this study, a total of 17 Cylindrocarpon-like strains were isolated from G. elata black rot tissues. Multilocus sequence analyses based on ITS, HIS, TEF, and TUB combined with morphological characterizations were performed to identify six Ilyonectria species, including four new species, Ilyonectria longispora, I. sinensis, I. xiaocaobaensis, and I. yunnanensis, and two known species, I. changbaiensis and I. robusta. The pathogenicity of 11 isolates comprising type strains of the four new species and representative isolates from each of the six species was tested on healthy tissues of G. elata. All isolates were pathogenic to G. elata tissues, and symptoms were identical to black rot disease, confirming that our isolates were the causal agents of black rot disease of G. elata.

Therapeutic efficacy and underlying mechanisms of Gastrodia elata polysaccharides on dextran sulfate sodium-induced inflammatory bowel disease in mice: Modulation of the gut microbiota and improvement of metabolic disorders

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory gastrointestinal disease, and an imbalance in the gut microbiota is a critical factor in its development. Gastrodia elata (G. elata), an Orchidaceae plant, is recognized for its nutritional and medicinal value. Studies have shown that G. elata polysaccharides (GBP) have anti-inflammatory properties that may ameliorate IBD. However, the therapeutic effects of GBP on gut microbiota metabolism remain unknown. Therefore, we aimed to examine the therapeutic potential of G. elata extract and GBP in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced IBD mice. GBP demonstrated the best therapeutic effect by reducing IBD symptoms in mice to the greatest extent. Administering GBP resulted in significant increases in the relative abundances of bacteria with potential anti-inflammatory effects, such as Ligilactobacillus and Alloprevotella, and decreases in the levels of bacteria associated with proinflammatory responses, such as Bacteroides and Escherichia-Shigella. Furthermore, 36 significant differential metabolites between the model and GBP groups were identified in feces, which were mainly enriched in amino acid metabolism, including tryptophan and cysteine, vitamin B6 metabolism and steroid hormone biosynthesis. Consequently, investigating the metabolic regulation of the gut microbiota is a promising approach to evaluate the therapeutic effect of GBP on IBD.

Insights into the nutritional properties and molecular basis of biosynthesis of amino acids and vitamins of Gastrodia elata offered by metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis

Gastrodia elata Blume (GE), a traditional and precious Chinese medicinal material, has been approved as a functional food. However, understanding GE's nutritional properties and its molecular basis remains limited. Here, metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses were performed on young and mature tubers of G. elata.f.elata (GEEy and GEEm) and G. elata.f.glauca (GEGy and GEGm). A total of 345 metabolites were detected, including 76 different amino acids and their derivatives containing all human essential amino acids (e.g., l-(+)-lysine, l-leucine), 13 vitamins (e.g., nicotinamide, thiamine), and 34 alkaloids (e.g., spermine, choline). GEGm has higher amino acid accumulation than GEEy, GEEm and GEGy, and vitamin contents were also slightly different in all four samples. Implying that GE, especially GEGm, is a kind of excellent complementary food as amino acid nutrition provider. From assembled 21,513 transcripts (genes) based on the transcriptome, we identified many genes that encode enzymes (e.g., pfkA, bglX, tyrAa, lysA, his B, aroA), which are responsible for the biosynthesis of amino acids and enzymes (e.g., nadA, URH1, NAPRT1, punA, rsgA) that related to vitamins metabolism. A total of 16 pairs of the differentially expressed genes (DEG) and differentially accumulated metabolites (DAM) (e.g., gene-tia006709 coding GAPDH and l-(+)-arginine, and gene-tia010180 coding tyrA and l-(+)-arginine) and three DEG-DAM pairs (e.g., gene-tia015379 coding NadA and nicotinate d-ribonucleoside) show significant similar positive or negative correlation based on three, and two comparisons of GEEy vs. GEGy, GEGy vs. GEGm, GEEy vs. GEGy and GEEm vs. GEGm, which involved into amino acid biosynthesis, and nicotinate nicotinamide metabolism, respectively. These results prove that the enzyme coded by these DEG promotes (positive correlation) or inhibits (negative correlation) the biosynthesis of parallel DAM in GE. Overall, the data and corresponding analysis in this study provide new insights into the nutritional properties of GE and the related molecular basis.

Effects of polysaccharides from Gastrodia elata on the immunomodulatory activity and gut microbiota regulation in cyclophosphamide-treated mice

BACKGROUND

Cyclophosphamide (CTX) is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent for the treatment of malignant tumors and autoimmune diseases. However, it can cause immunosuppression and damage the intestinal mucosa. The development of new agents to counteract these side effects is becoming increasingly important. Previous studies have shown that the polysaccharides from Gastrodia elata (GEPs) have strong immune-enhancing effects; however, their functions regarding the intestines and the underlying mechanism are still unclear. In this study, the effects of GEPs on immunomodulatory activity, intestinal barrier function, and gut microbiota regulation were investigated in a mouse model of CTX-induced immunosuppression.

RESULTS

Gastrodia elata polysaccharides attenuated the CTX-induced decrease in organ indices of the thymus and spleen, and promoted the secretion of immune-related cytokines and immunoglobulins in the serum. They also improved the intestinal pathology and restored the intestinal barrier function by elevating the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins, occludin and ZO-1. Moreover, GEPs restored the composition and abundance of the gut microbiota and increased the short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) content in the colon. The abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria (Muribaculaceae, Prevotellaceae, and Bacteroidaceae) also increased.

CONCLUSIONS

Gastrodia elata polysaccharides can effectively alleviate immunosuppression and regulate the intestinal barrier integrity and the structure of gut microbiota in CTX-treated mice. They may be used as ingredients to develop functional foods for intestinal health. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Towards a better understanding of the relationships between the structure and antitumor activity of Gastrodia elata polysaccharides by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation

To better understand the structure-function relationship of Gastrodia elata polysaccharides (PGEs), PGEs were extracted by ultrasound-assisted extraction method and the effects of extraction time on the structure and conformation of PGEs were evaluated by asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) coupled online with multiangle light scattering (MALS) and differential refractive index (dRI) detectors (AF4-MALS-dRI). Besides separation, AF4-MALS-dRI can provide more information about PGEs, such as size and molecular weight (M_w) distributions, apparent density, and conformation. The effects of PGEs on the proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle of MCF-7 cells were investigated. The cell activity assay indicated that the PGEs can inhibit the growth of MCF-7 cells by inducing late apoptosis. The results indicated that PGEs with a spherical conformation and compact structure seem to be beneficial to inducing MCF-7 cells late apoptosis. Moreover, results demonstrated that the information obtained by AF4-MALS-dRI is valuable for better understanding of the relationship of structure-activity of PGEs.

Oral absorption mechanism of the polysaccharides from Gastrodia elata Blume base on fluorescence labeling

The mechanisms of action of polysaccharides in vivo have been widely elucidated. However, the systematic research of its absorption and transport mechanisms remains unclear. Herein, we extracted a polysaccharide fraction (GEP) from Gastrodia elata by water extraction and alcohol precipitation and aimed to reveal its oral absorption processes through animal models and Caco-2 cells monolayer models. Our research data showed that GEP-Cy5.5 could be absorbed through the small intestine and the main absorption intestinal segment was the ileum (the absorption rate constant [Ka]: (3.64 ± 0.70) × 10^-4 cm/s; the effective apparent permeability [Papp value]: (4.88 ± 1.02) × 10^-5 cm/s). The ligated intestinal loops also revealed that GEP-Cy5.5 could pass through the villi of the small intestine and the mucosal barrier into the submucosa. Furthermore, GEP-Cy5.5 was readily absorbed into the blood through the gastrointestinal tract, then distributed in the liver and the kidney. The Papp value of in vitro transport study was (1.29 ± 0.08) × 10^-6 cm/s, which was a time-dependent process. Notably, GEP-Cy5.5 was transported through the endocytosis process mediated by clathrin and macropinocytosis. The underlying absorptive mechanisms of GEP in vivo and in vitro were clarified, which provided the guidance for clinical medicine administration and could deepen the biological understanding of oral polysaccharides.

Effects of Gastrodin on BV2 cells under oxygen-glucose deprivation and its mechanism

OBJECTIVE

Cerebrovascular disease is one of the major diseases that seriously harm human health currently. The purpose of this study is to find an effective treatment and clarify its mechanism of action to provide a new idea and drug target for the clinical treatment of ischemic cerebrovascular disease.

METHODS

The microglia cell line (BV2 cell line) was cultured in vitro. Prepare a hypoxia ischemia cell model by OGD and simulate the pathophysiological process of ischemic cerebrovascular disease in vivo. According to the techniques of LDH Cytotoxicity Assay Kit, flow cytometry of Annexin V-FITC Apoptosis Detection Kit, Laser Confocal Fluorescence Immunostaining (Double staining method), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and Western blotting, BV2 cells are observed through morphology and function changes induced by OGD. Moreover, these techniques were used to analyze changes in key proteins expression of signal transduction pathway in ischemic cerebrovascular disease, to explore the mechanism of gastrodin on ischemic cerebrovascular disease, and to elucidate the available ways for cell protection following ischemia and hypoxia.

RESULTS

Gastrodin has no obvious toxic effect on BV-2 cells under physiological conditions. The death rate of BV-2 cells increases as the time of hypoxia increase. In the absence of oxygen, Gastrodin has a protective effect on the survival of BV-2 cells. This protective effect is related to the reduction of apoptosis rate. It can also improve the hypoxic tolerance of BV-2 cells, and there is no obvious Gastrodin dose-dependence. Moreover, Gastrodin has dual effects on BV-2 cells. The dual role of Gastrodin is closely related to the expression of several proteins which can affect the MAPK signal transduction pathway.

CONCLUSION

Gastrodin has a dual effect on microglia with OGD. On the one hand, Gastrodin can inhibit the inflammatory cytokines secreted by microglia and aggravate the inflammatory response; on the other hand, Gastrodin can promote the secretion of protective cytokines from microglia to reduce the inflammatory response.

Gastrodia elata Blume Polysaccharides: A Review of Their Acquisition, Analysis, Modification, and Pharmacological Activities

Gastrodia elata Blume (G. elata) is a valuable Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) with a wide range of clinical applications. G. elata polysaccharides, as one of the main active ingredients of G. elata, have interesting extraction, purification, qualitative analysis, quantitative analysis, derivatization, and pharmacological activity aspects, yet a review of G. elata polysaccharides has not yet been published. Based on this, this article summarizes the progress of G. elata polysaccharides in terms of the above aspects to provide a basis for their further research and development.