1
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Wang Y, Xiang D, Chen S, Yang G. Comprehensive Regulation of Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation of Polypeptides. Molecules 2023; 28:6707. [PMID: 37764485 PMCID: PMC10536796 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The elucidation of the molecular driving forces responsible for Liquid-liquid Phase Separation (LLPS) of proteins and nucleic acids within living cells is crucial for understanding its biological functions and its role in related diseases. In the present study, we investigated the regulation of LLPS in a series of polypeptides with repetitive proline and arginine (PR) sequences by modifying their length and the salt concentration in the solution. Our findings indicate that higher salt concentrations are necessary for LLPS of repetitive PR peptides longer than eight PRs, which emerges as a threshold value. To pinpoint the molecular forces driving the LLPS in peptides, we sequentially introduced various concentrations of hydrophobic disruptors, such as 1,6-hexanediol, and electrostatic regulators, such as ethyl alcohol and 6-Aminocaproic acid. We further modulated the electrostatic interaction by introducing ethyl alcohol and 6-Aminocaproic acid to alter the dielectric constant of the solution. The inclusion of ethyl alcohol intensified the electrostatic interaction between arginine molecules, facilitating LLPS of PR15, while 6-Aminocaproic acid yielded the reverse effect. We deduced that the phase separation in peptide systems is conjointly driven by hydrophobicity and electrostatic interactions. These insights can guide the regulation of LLPS in other peptide and protein systems, and could be pivotal in addressing abnormal aggregations of proteins and nucleic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Guangcan Yang
- Department of Physics, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Y.W.); (D.X.); (S.C.)
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2
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Ray S, Mason TO, Boyens-Thiele L, Farzadfard A, Larsen JA, Norrild RK, Jahnke N, Buell AK. Mass photometric detection and quantification of nanoscale α-synuclein phase separation. Nat Chem 2023; 15:1306-1316. [PMID: 37337111 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01244-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Protein liquid-liquid phase separation can lead to disease-related amyloid fibril formation. The mechanisms of conversion of monomeric protein into condensate droplets and of the latter into fibrils remain elusive. Here, using mass photometry, we demonstrate that the Parkinson's disease-related protein, α-synuclein, can form dynamic nanoscale clusters at physiologically relevant, sub-saturated concentrations. Nanoclusters nucleate in bulk solution and promote amyloid fibril formation of the dilute-phase monomers upon ageing. Their formation is instantaneous, even under conditions where macroscopic assemblies appear only after several days. The slow growth of the nanoclusters can be attributed to a kinetic barrier, probably due to an interfacial penalty from the charged C terminus of α-synuclein. Our findings reveal that α-synuclein phase separation occurs at much wider ranges of solution conditions than reported so far. Importantly, we establish mass photometry as a promising methodology to detect and quantify nanoscale precursors of phase separation. We also demonstrate its general applicability by probing the existence of nanoclusters of a non-amyloidogenic protein, Ddx4n1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumik Ray
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Thomas O Mason
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lars Boyens-Thiele
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Azad Farzadfard
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jacob Aunstrup Larsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Rasmus K Norrild
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Nadin Jahnke
- Novo Nordisk A/S, Novo Nordisk Park, Måløv, Denmark
| | - Alexander K Buell
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.
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3
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Hopkins MM, Antonopoulos IH, Parupudi A, Bee JS, Bain DL. Comparative Thermodynamics of the Reversible Self-Association of Therapeutic mAbs Reveal Opposing Roles for Linked Proton- and Ion-Binding Events. Pharm Res 2023; 40:1383-1397. [PMID: 36869246 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-023-03485-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Reversible self-association (RSA) has long been a concern in therapeutic monoclonal antibody (mAb) development. Because RSA typically occurs at high mAb concentrations, accurate assessment of the underlying interaction parameters requires explicitly addressing hydrodynamic and thermodynamic nonideality. We previously examined the thermodynamics of RSA for two mAbs, C and E, in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Here we continue to explore the mechanistic aspects of RSA by examining the thermodynamics of both mAbs under reduced pH and salt conditions. METHODS Dynamic light scattering and sedimentation velocity (SV) studies were conducted for both mAbs at multiple protein concentrations and temperatures, with the SV data analyzed via global fitting to determine best-fit models, interaction energetics, and nonideality contributions. RESULTS We find that mAb C self-associates isodesmically irrespective of temperature, and that association is enthalpically driven but entropically penalized. Conversely, mAb E self-associates cooperatively and via a monomer-dimer-tetramer-hexamer reaction pathway. Moreover, all mAb E reactions are entropically driven and enthalpically modest or minimal. CONCLUSIONS The thermodynamics for mAb C self-association are classically seen as originating from van der Waals interactions and hydrogen bonding. However, relative to the energetics we determined in PBS, self-association must also be linked to proton release and/or ion uptake events. For mAb E, the thermodynamics implicate electrostatic interactions. Furthermore, self-association is instead linked to proton uptake and/or ion release, and primarily by tetramers and hexamers. Finally, although the origins of mAb E cooperativity remain unclear, ring formation remains a possibility whereas linear polymerization reactions can be eliminated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandi M Hopkins
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 E. Montview Blvd., C-238, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Formulation Development, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Tarrytown, NY, 10591, USA
| | - Ioanna H Antonopoulos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 E. Montview Blvd., C-238, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Biophysical Characterization, KBI Biopharma, Louisville, CO, 80027, USA
| | - Arun Parupudi
- Department of Dosage Form Design and Development, Biopharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, 20878, USA
- Drug Product and Formulation Sciences, GSK Vaccines, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Jared S Bee
- Department of Dosage Form Design and Development, Biopharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, 20878, USA
- Formulation and Drug Product Development, REGENXBIO Inc, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - David L Bain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 E. Montview Blvd., C-238, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
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4
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Pujahari SR, Mali PS, Purusottam RN, Kumar A. Combined Liquid-State and Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance at Natural Abundance for Comparative Higher Order Structure Assessment in the Formulated-State of Biphasic Biopharmaceutics. Anal Chem 2023. [PMID: 37154614 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c05485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
A higher-order structure (HOS) is critical to a biopharmaceutical drug as the three-dimensional structure governs its function. Even the partial perturbation in the HOS of the drug can alter the biological efficiency and efficacy. Due to current limitations in analytical technologies, it is imperative to develop a protocol to characterize the HOS of biopharmaceuticals in the native formulated state. This becomes even more challenging for the suspension formulations where solution and solid phases co-exist. Here, we have used a combinatorial approach using liquid (1D 1H) and solid-state (13C CP MAS) NMR methodology to demonstrate the HOS in the biphasic microcrystalline suspension drug in its formulated state. The data were further assessed by principal component analysis and Mahalanobis distance (DM) calculation for quantitative assessment. This approach is sufficient to provide information regarding the protein HOS and the local dynamics of the molecule when combined with orthogonal techniques such as X-ray scattering. Our method can be an elegant tool to investigate batch-to-batch variation in the process of manufacture and storage as well as a biosimilarity comparison study for biphasic/microcrystalline suspension.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pramod S Mali
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Rudra N Purusottam
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Ashutosh Kumar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
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5
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Wu HH, Crames M, Wei Y, Liu D, Gueneva-Boucheva K, Son I, Frego L, Han F, Kroe-Barrett R, Nixon A, Michael M. Effect of the ADCC-modulating mutations and the selection of human IgG isotypes on physicochemical properties of Fc. J Pharm Sci 2022; 111:2411-2421. [PMID: 35760121 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2022.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies, particularly IgGs and Ig-based molecules, are a well-established and growing class of biotherapeutic drugs. In order to improve efficacy, potency and pharmacokinetics of these therapeutic drugs, pharmaceutical industries have investigated significantly in engineering fragment crystallizable (Fc) domain of these drugs to optimize the interactions of these drugs and Fc gamma receptors (FcγRs) in recent ten years. The biological function of the therapeutics with the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) enhanced double mutation (S239D/I332E) of isotype IgG1, the ADCC reduced double mutation (L234A/L235A) of isotype IgG1, and ADCC reduced isotype IgG4 has been well understood. However, limited information regarding the effect of these mutations or isotype difference on physicochemical properties (PCP), developability, and manufacturability of therapeutics bearing these different Fc regions is available. In this report, we systematically characterize the effects of the mutations and IgG4 isotype on conformation stability, colloidal stability, solubility, and storage stability at accelerated conditions in two buffer systems using six Fc variants. Our results provide a basis for selecting appropriate Fc region during development of IgG or Ig-based therapeutics and predicting effect of the mutations on CMC development process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Haixia Wu
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA.
| | - Maureen Crames
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Yangjie Wei
- Amgen Inc., Drug Product Technologies, Thousand Oaks, California, USA
| | - Dongmei Liu
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Kristina Gueneva-Boucheva
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Ikbae Son
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Lee Frego
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Fei Han
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Rachel Kroe-Barrett
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Andrew Nixon
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
| | - Marlow Michael
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Innovation Unit, Biotherapeutics Discovery, Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
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6
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Xu T, Zhang J, Wang T, Wang X. Recombinant antibodies aggregation and overcoming strategies in CHO cells. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:3913-3922. [PMID: 35608667 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-11977-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian cell lines are frequently used as the preferred host cells for producing recombinant therapeutic proteins (RTPs) having post-translational modified modifications similar to those observed in proteins produced by human cells. Nowadays, most RTPs approved for marketing are produced in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. Recombinant therapeutic antibodies (RTAs) are among the most important and promising RTPs for biomedical applications. A major limitation associated with the use of RTAs is their aggregation, which can be caused by a variety of factors; this results in a reduction of quality. RTA aggregations are especially concerning as they can trigger human immune responses in humans and may be fatal. Therefore, the mechanisms underlying RTA aggregation and measures for avoiding aggregation are interesting topics in RTAs research. In this review, we discuss recent progress in the field of RTAs aggregation, with a focus on factors that cause aggregation during RTA production and the development of strategies for overcoming RTA aggregation. KEY POINTS: • The recombinant antibody aggregation in mammalian cell systems is reviewed. • Intracellular environment and extracellular parameters influence recombinant antibody aggregation. • Reducing the aggregations can improve the quality of recombinant antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Xu
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Recombinant Pharmaceutical Protein Expression System of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China.,The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453002, Henan, China
| | - Jihong Zhang
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Recombinant Pharmaceutical Protein Expression System of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China.,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China
| | - Tianyun Wang
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Recombinant Pharmaceutical Protein Expression System of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China. .,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China.
| | - Xiaoyin Wang
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Recombinant Pharmaceutical Protein Expression System of Henan, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China. .,School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China.
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7
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Nakauchi Y, Nishinami S, Murakami Y, Ogura T, Kano H, Shiraki K. Opalescence Arising from Network Assembly in Antibody Solution. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:1160-1167. [PMID: 35274955 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Opalescence of therapeutic antibody solutions is one of the concerns in drug formulation. However, the mechanistic insights into the opalescence of antibody solutions remain unclear. Here, we investigated the assembly states of antibody molecules as a function of antibody concentration. The solutions of bovine gamma globulin and human immunoglobulin G at around 100 mg/mL showed the formation of submicron-scale network assemblies. The network assembly resulted in the appearance of opalescence with a transparent blue color without the precipitates of antibodies. Furthermore, the addition of trehalose and arginine, previously known to act as protein stabilizers and protein aggregation suppressors, was able to suppress the opalescence arising from the network assembly. These results will provide an important information for evaluating and improving protein formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshitaka Nakauchi
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8573, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Suguru Nishinami
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8573, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yusuke Murakami
- Ph.D. Program in Humanics, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8577, Ibaraki, Japan.,International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8575, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Ogura
- Health and Medical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Higashi, Tsukuba 305-8566, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hideaki Kano
- Department of Chemistry, Kyusyu University, 744, Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka-shi 819-0395, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kentaro Shiraki
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8573, Ibaraki, Japan
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8
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Deciphering the high viscosity of a therapeutic monoclonal antibody in high concentration formulations by microdialysis-hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry. J Pharm Sci 2022; 111:1335-1345. [PMID: 34999091 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
High concentration formulations of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are highly desired for subcutaneous injection. However, high concentration formulations can exhibit unusual molecular behaviors, such as high viscosity or aggregation, that present challenges for manufacturing and administration. To understand the molecular mechanism of the high viscosity exhibited by high concentration protein formulations, we analyzed a human IgG4 (mAb1) at high protein concentrations using sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation (SV-AUC), X-ray crystallography, hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS), and protein surface patches analysis. Particularly, we developed a microdialysis HDX-MS method to determine intermolecular interactions at different protein concentrations. SV-AUC revealed that mAb1 displayed a propensity for self-association of Fab-Fab, Fab-Fc, and Fc-Fc. mAb1 crystal structure and HDX-MS results demonstrated self-association between complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) and Fc through electrostatic interactions. HDX-MS also indicated Fab-Fab interactions through hydrophobic surface patches constructed by mAb1 CDRs. Our multi-method approach, including fast screening of SV-AUC as well as interface analysis by X-ray crystallography and HDX-MS, helped to elucidate the high viscosity of mAb1 at high concentrations as induced by self-associations of Fab-Fc and Fab-Fab.
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9
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Oki S, Nishinami S, Nakauchi Y, Ogura T, Shiraki K. Arginine and its Derivatives Suppress the Opalescence of an Antibody Solution. J Pharm Sci 2021; 111:1126-1132. [PMID: 34843741 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Opalescence is a problem concerned with the stability of an antibody solution. It occurs when a high concentration of a protein is present. Arginine (Arg) is a versatile aggregation suppressor of proteins, which is among the candidates that suppress opalescence in antibody solutions. Here, we investigated the effect of various types of small molecular additives on opalescence to reveal the mechanism of Arg in preventing opalescence in antibody solution. As expected, Arg suppressed the opalescence of the immunoglobulin G (IgG) solution. Arg also concentration dependently inhibited the formation of microstructures in IgG molecules. Interestingly, the intrinsic fluorescence spectra of highly concentrated IgG solutions differed from those having low concentrations, even though IgG retained a distinct tertiary structure. Arginine ethylester was more effective in suppressing the opalescence of IgG solutions than Arg, whereas lysine and γ-guanidinobutyric acid were less effective. These results indicated that positively charged groups of both α-amine and guanidinium actively influence Arg as an additive for suppressing opalescence. Diols, which are the suppressors of the liquid-liquid phase separation of proteins were also effective in suppressing the opalescence. These results therefore provide insight into the control of opalescence of antibody solutions at high concentrations using solution additives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shogo Oki
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Suguru Nishinami
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Nakauchi
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Ogura
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8566, Japan
| | - Kentaro Shiraki
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan.
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10
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Barros M, Zhang X, Kenrick S, Valente JJ. Opalescence Measurements: Improvements in Fundamental Knowledge, Identifying Sources of Analytical Biases, and Advanced Applications for the Development of Therapeutic Proteins. J Pharm Sci 2021; 110:3550-3557. [PMID: 34111445 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Opalescence of biopharmaceutical solutions can indicate suboptimal colloidal stability and is therefore a generally undesirable attribute that requires investigation and potentially remediation. While there are numerous instrumentation options available for measuring opalescence, cross-instrument comparisons and detailed knowledge of analytical biases have been limited. Here, we highlight key findings from a multi-instrument investigation where differences in reported opalescence values are explained with particular emphasis on how the optical configuration and detector properties of each instrument affect the response of the sample and the primary formazin standards required for instrument calibration. In doing so, the particle size distribution, angular-dependent light scattering properties and refractive index of the primary formazin standard material are characterized and presented. Finally, the advanced application of a 90° angle light scattering instrument is presented as a suitable approach for making low volume, temperature controlled, nephelometric measurements of opalescence. Moreover, we demonstrate how this approach enables the simultaneous evaluation of key physical properties, such as hydrodynamic size, that are pertinent to investigations of opalescent biopharmaceuticals but have historically required the use of separate instrumentation. The findings reported here address key knowledge gaps and provide opportunities for improving the efficiency and inter-laboratory comparability of opalescence measurements for biopharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilia Barros
- Drug Product Development, Bristol Myers Squibb Company, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA.
| | - Xujun Zhang
- Wyatt Technology Corporation, Santa Barbara, CA 93117, USA
| | - Sophia Kenrick
- Wyatt Technology Corporation, Santa Barbara, CA 93117, USA
| | - Joseph J Valente
- Drug Product Development, Bristol Myers Squibb Company, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA
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11
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Tsumura K, Hsu W, Mimura M, Horiuchi A, Shiraki K. Lowering the viscosity of a high-concentration antibody solution by protein-polyelectrolyte complex. J Biosci Bioeng 2021; 133:17-24. [PMID: 34629298 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2021.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
High-concentration and low-viscosity antibody formulations are necessary when administering these solutions subcutaneously (SC) due to limitations on injection volume. Here we show a method to decrease the viscosity of monoclonal antibody solution by protein-polyelectrolyte complex (PPC) with poly-l-glutamic acid (polyE). The viscosity of omalizumab solutions was 90 cP at the concentration of 150 mg/mL. In the presence of 20-50 mM polyE, the viscosity of PPC solution of 150 mg/mL omalizumab dramatically decreased below 10 cP due to the formation of crowded solution. The crowded state of PPC, named aggregated PPC (A-PPC), contained water droplets with a diameter of 10 μm or larger with low antibody concentrations. In the presence of 60 mM or more polyE, the omalizumab solution was transparent with the viscosity of 40 cP or less, named soluble PPC (S-PPC). More importantly, the solutions of both A-PPC and S-PPC were fully redissolved by the addition of phosphate saline buffer confirmed by secondary structure, the amount of aggregates, and binding activity to antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Tsumura
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - WeiLin Hsu
- Research and Development Center, Terumo Corporation, Nakai-machi, Ashigarakami-gun, Kanagawa 259-0151, Japan
| | - Masahiro Mimura
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Aiko Horiuchi
- Research and Development Center, Terumo Corporation, Nakai-machi, Ashigarakami-gun, Kanagawa 259-0151, Japan
| | - Kentaro Shiraki
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan.
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12
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Bramham JE, Davies SA, Podmore A, Golovanov AP. Stability of a high-concentration monoclonal antibody solution produced by liquid-liquid phase separation. MAbs 2021; 13:1940666. [PMID: 34225583 PMCID: PMC8265796 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2021.1940666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Subcutaneous injection of a low volume (<2 mL) high concentration (>100 mg/mL) formulation is an attractive administration strategy for monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and other biopharmaceutical proteins. Using concentrated solutions may also be beneficial at various stages of bioprocessing. However, concentrating proteins by conventional techniques, such as ultrafiltration, can be time consuming and challenging. Isolation of the dense fraction produced by macroscopic liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) has been suggested as a means to produce high-concentration solutions, but practicality of this method, and the stability of the resulting protein solution have not previously been demonstrated. In this proof-of-concept study, we demonstrate that LLPS can be used to concentrate a mAb solution to >170 mg/mL. We show that the structure of the mAb is not altered by LLPS, and unperturbed mAb is recoverable following dilution of the dense fraction, as judged by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Finally, we show that the physical properties and stability of a model high concentration protein formulation obtained from the dense fraction can be improved, for example through the addition of the excipient arginine·glutamate. This results in a stable high-concentration protein formulation with reduced viscosity and no further macroscopic LLPS. Concentrating mAb solutions by LLPS represents a simple and effective technique to progress toward producing high-concentration protein formulations for bioprocessing or administration. Abbreviations Arginine·glutamate (Arg·Glu), Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG), critical temperature (TC), high-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS), monoclonal antibody (mAb), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), transverse relaxation rate (R2)
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E Bramham
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Stephanie A Davies
- Dosage Form Design & Development, BioPharmaceuticals Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adrian Podmore
- Dosage Form Design & Development, BioPharmaceuticals Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Alexander P Golovanov
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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13
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Kingsbury JS, Lantz MM, Saini A, Wang MZ, Gokarn YR. Characterization of Opalescence in low Volume Monoclonal Antibody Solutions Enabled by Microscale Nephelometry. J Pharm Sci 2021; 110:3176-3182. [PMID: 34004217 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based drugs are often prone to unfavorable solution behaviors including high viscosity, opalescence, phase separation, and aggregation at the high concentrations needed to enable patient-centric subcutaneous dosage forms. Given that these can have a detrimental impact on manufacturability, stability, and delivery, approaches to identifying, monitoring, and controlling these behaviors during drug development are critical. Opalescence presents a significant challenge due to its relationship to liquid-liquid phase separation. Quantitative characterization of opalescence via turbidimetry is often restrictive due to large volume requirements (>2 mL) and alternative microscale approaches based on light transmittance (Eckhardt et al., J Pharm Sci Technol. 1994, 48: 64-70) may pose challenging with respect to accuracy. To address the need for accurate and quantitative microscale opalescence measurements, we have evaluated the use of a 'de-tuned' static light scattering detector which requires <10 μL sample per measurement. We show that tuning of the laser power to a range far below that of traditional light scattering measurements results in a stable detector response that can be accurately calibrated to the nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) scale using appropriate standards. The calibrated detector signal yields NTU values for mAbs and other protein solutions that are comparable to a commercial turbidimeter. We used this microscale approach to characterize the opalescence of 48 commercial mAb drug products and found that the majority have opalescence below 15 NTU. However, in products with mAb concentrations greater than 75 mg/mL, a broad range of opalescence was observed, in a few cases greater than 20 NTU. These measurements as well as nephelometric characterization of several IgG1 and IgG4 mAbs across a broad pH range highlight subclass-specific tendencies toward opalescence in high concentration solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amandeep Saini
- Global CMC Development, Sanofi, Framingham, MA, 01701 USA
| | - Michael Z Wang
- Global CMC Development, Sanofi, Framingham, MA, 01701 USA.
| | - Yatin R Gokarn
- Global CMC Development, Sanofi, Framingham, MA, 01701 USA
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14
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15
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Energetic Dissection of Mab-Specific Reversible Self-Association Reveals Unique Thermodynamic Signatures. Pharm Res 2021; 38:243-255. [PMID: 33604786 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-021-02987-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Reversible self-association (RSA) remains a challenge in the development of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). We recently analyzed the energetics of RSA for five IgG mAbs (designated as A-E) under matched conditions and using orthogonal methods. Here we examine the thermodynamics of RSA for two of the mAbs that showed the strongest evidence of RSA (mAbs C and E) to identify underlying mechanisms. METHODS Concentration-dependent dynamic light scattering and sedimentation velocity (SV) studies were carried out for each mAb over a range of temperatures. Because self-association was weak, the SV data were globally analyzed via direct boundary fitting to identify best-fit models, accurately determine interaction energetics, and account for the confounding effects of thermodynamic and hydrodynamic nonideality. RESULTS mAb C undergoes isodesmic self-association at all temperatures examined, with the energetics indicative of an enthalpically-driven reaction offset by a significant entropic penalty. By contrast, mAb E undergoes monomer-dimer self-association, with the reaction being entropically-driven and comprised of only a small enthalpic contribution. CONCLUSIONS Classical interpretations implicate van der Waals interactions and H-bond formation for mAb C RSA, and electrostatic interactions for mAb E. However, noting that RSA is likely coupled to additional equilibria, we also discuss the limitations of such interpretations.
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16
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Bramham JE, Podmore A, Davies SA, Golovanov AP. Comprehensive Assessment of Protein and Excipient Stability in Biopharmaceutical Formulations Using 1H NMR Spectroscopy. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:288-295. [PMID: 33659867 PMCID: PMC7906489 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Biopharmaceutical proteins are important drug therapies in the treatment of a range of diseases. Proteins, such as antibodies (Abs) and peptides, are prone to chemical and physical degradation, particularly at the high concentrations currently sought for subcutaneous injections, and so formulation conditions, including buffers and excipients, must be optimized to minimize such instabilities. Therefore, both the protein and small molecule content of biopharmaceutical formulations and their stability are critical to a treatment's success. However, assessing all aspects of protein and small molecule stability currently requires a large number of analytical techniques, most of which involve sample dilution or other manipulations which may themselves distort sample behavior. Here, we demonstrate the application of 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to study both protein and small molecule content and stability in situ in high-concentration (100 mg/mL) Ab formulations. We show that protein degradation (aggregation or fragmentation) can be detected as changes in 1D 1H NMR signal intensity, while apparent relaxation rates are specifically sensitive to Ab fragmentation. Simultaneously, relaxation-filtered spectra reveal the presence and degradation of small molecule components such as excipients, as well as changes in general solution properties, such as pH. 1H NMR spectroscopy can thus provide a holistic overview of biopharmaceutical formulation content and stability, providing a preliminary characterization of degradation and acting as a triaging step to guide further analytical techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E. Bramham
- Manchester
Institute of Biotechnology and School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science
and Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K.
| | - Adrian Podmore
- Dosage
Form Design & Development, BioPharmaceuticals Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB21 6GH, U.K.
| | - Stephanie A. Davies
- Dosage
Form Design & Development, BioPharmaceuticals Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge CB21 6GH, U.K.
| | - Alexander P. Golovanov
- Manchester
Institute of Biotechnology and School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science
and Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K.
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17
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Banks DD, Cordia JF. Suppression of Electrostatic Mediated Antibody Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation by Charged and Noncharged Preferentially Excluded Excipients. Mol Pharm 2021; 18:1285-1292. [PMID: 33555888 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c01138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Isotonic concentrations of inert cosolutes or excipients are routinely used in protein therapeutic formulations to minimize physical instabilities including aggregation, particulation, and precipitation that are often manifested during drug substance/product manufacture and long-term storage. Despite their prevalent use within the biopharmaceutical industry, a more detailed understanding for how excipients modulate the specific protein-protein interactions responsible for these instabilities is still needed so that informed formulation decisions can be made at the earliest stages of development when protein supply and time are limited. In the present report, subisotonic concentrations of the five common formulation excipients, sucrose, proline, sorbitol, glycerol, arginine hydrochloride, and the denaturant urea, were studied for their effect on the room temperature liquid-liquid phase separation of a model monoclonal antibody (mAb-B). Although each excipient lowered the onset temperatures of mAb-B liquid-liquid phase separation to different extents, all six were found to be preferentially excluded from the native state monomer by vapor pressure osmometry, and no apparent correlations to the excipient dependence of mAb-B melting temperatures were observed. These results and those of the effects of solution pH, addition of salt, and impact of a small number of charge mutations were most consistent with a mechanism of local excipient accumulation, to an extent dependent on their type, with the specific residues that mediate mAb-B electrostatic protein-protein interactions. These findings suggest that selection of excipients on the basis of their interaction with the solvent exposed residues of the native state may at times be a more effective strategy for limiting protein-protein interactions at pharmaceutically relevant storage conditions than choosing those that are excluded from the residues of the native state interior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas D Banks
- Department of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization, Bristol Myers Squibb, 4242 Campus Point Court, Suite 700, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Jon F Cordia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization, Bristol Myers Squibb, 4242 Campus Point Court, Suite 700, San Diego, California 92121, United States
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18
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Cheng W, He B, Basu S, Souillac P. Identification of Key Excipients for the Solubilization and Structural Characterization of Lipoprotein Lipase, An Enzyme for Hydrolysis of Triglyceride. J Pharm Sci 2021; 110:1958-1968. [PMID: 33516753 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is an essential enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides in chylomicrons and very low-density lipoprotein into glycerol and fatty acids. One major hurdle in using LPL as a therapeutic has been its poor solubility/stability after purification. Solutions used to preserve purified LPL commonly contain either heparin, or concentrated glycerol and sodium chloride, resulting in hypertonic solutions. These solutions are not acceptable as pharmaceutical formulations. This paper describes the identification of a key excipient, sodium laurate, which can solubilize LPL in an isotonic environment without heparin or concentrated glycerol. A follow-up multi-variant study was performed to identify the effect of sodium laurate and its interaction with sodium chloride on the solubility and processing conditions of LPL. The LPL concentration (up to 14 mg/mL) achievable in pharmaceutically relevant and salt-free conditions was identified to be closely correlated to the concentration of sodium laurate, which was co-concentrated with LPL. The result that sodium laurate increases stability of LPL characterized by differential scanning calorimetry and UV absorbance spectra suggests that the mechanism of solubilization of LPL by sodium laurate is related to LPL structural stabilization. The findings indicate that substrates and their enzymatic products can be strong stabilizers for other protein molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqiang Cheng
- Drug Product Development-Biologics, Takeda R&D, 200 Shire Way, Lexington, MA 02421, USA.
| | - Bing He
- Drug Product Development-Biologics, Takeda R&D, 200 Shire Way, Lexington, MA 02421, USA
| | - Sujit Basu
- Medical Device Center of Excellence, Takeda R&D, 125 Spring Street, Lexington, MA 02421, USA
| | - Pierre Souillac
- Drug Product Development-Biologics, Takeda R&D, 200 Shire Way, Lexington, MA 02421, USA.
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19
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Tilegenova C, Izadi S, Yin J, Huang CS, Wu J, Ellerman D, Hymowitz SG, Walters B, Salisbury C, Carter PJ. Dissecting the molecular basis of high viscosity of monospecific and bispecific IgG antibodies. MAbs 2021; 12:1692764. [PMID: 31779513 PMCID: PMC6927759 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2019.1692764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Some antibodies exhibit elevated viscosity at high concentrations, making them poorly suited for therapeutic applications requiring administration by injection such as subcutaneous or ocular delivery. Here we studied an anti-IL-13/IL-17 bispecific IgG4 antibody, which has anomalously high viscosity compared to its parent monospecific antibodies. The viscosity of the bispecific IgG4 in solution was decreased by only ~30% in the presence of NaCl, suggesting electrostatic interactions are insufficient to fully explain the drivers of viscosity. Intriguingly, addition of arginine-HCl reduced the viscosity of the bispecific IgG4 by ~50% to its parent IgG level. These data suggest that beyond electrostatics, additional types of interactions such as cation-π and/or π-π may contribute to high viscosity more significantly than previously understood. Molecular dynamics simulations of antibody fragments in the mixed solution of free arginine and explicit water were conducted to identify hotspots involved in self-interactions. Exposed surface aromatic amino acids displayed an increased number of contacts with arginine. Mutagenesis of the majority of aromatic residues pinpointed by molecular dynamics simulations effectively decreased the solution's viscosity when tested experimentally. This mutational method to reduce the viscosity of a bispecific antibody was extended to a monospecific anti-GCGR IgG1 antibody with elevated viscosity. In all cases, point mutants were readily identified that both reduced viscosity and retained antigen-binding affinity. These studies demonstrate a new approach to mitigate high viscosity of some antibodies by mutagenesis of surface-exposed aromatic residues on complementarity-determining regions that may facilitate some clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Saeed Izadi
- Early Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jianping Yin
- Structural Biology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Jiansheng Wu
- Protein Chemistry, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Diego Ellerman
- Protein Chemistry, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sarah G Hymowitz
- Structural Biology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin Walters
- Biochemical and Cellular Pharmacology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Cleo Salisbury
- Early Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Paul J Carter
- Antibody Engineering, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
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20
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Matsuoka T, Miyauchi R, Nagaoka N, Hasegawa J. Mitigation of liquid-liquid phase separation of a monoclonal antibody by mutations of negative charges on the Fab surface. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0240673. [PMID: 33125371 PMCID: PMC7598502 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0240673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Some monoclonal antibodies undergo liquid-liquid phase separation owing to self-attractive associations involving electrostatic and other soft interactions, thereby rendering monoclonal antibodies unsuitable as therapeutics. To mitigate the phase separation, formulation optimization is often performed. However, this is sometimes unsuccessful because of the limited time for the development of therapeutic antibodies. Thus, protein mutations with appropriate design are required. In this report, we describe a case study involving the design of mutants of negatively charged surface residues to reduce liquid-liquid phase separation propensity. Physicochemical analysis of the resulting mutants demonstrated the mutual correlation between the sign of second virial coefficient B2, the Fab dipole moment, and the reduction of liquid-liquid phase separation propensity. Moreover, both the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment appeared to be essential for liquid-liquid phase separation propensity, where electrostatic interaction was the dominant mechanism. These findings could contribute to a better design of mutants with reduced liquid-liquid phase separation propensity and improved drug-like biophysical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuji Matsuoka
- Modality Research Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo, Co., Ltd., Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryuki Miyauchi
- Modality Research Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo, Co., Ltd., Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobumi Nagaoka
- Modality Research Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo, Co., Ltd., Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jun Hasegawa
- Modality Research Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo, Co., Ltd., Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan
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21
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Maia J, Batista S, Couto N, Gregório AC, Bodo C, Elzanowska J, Strano Moraes MC, Costa-Silva B. Employing Flow Cytometry to Extracellular Vesicles Sample Microvolume Analysis and Quality Control. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:593750. [PMID: 33195266 PMCID: PMC7661467 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.593750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular Vesicles (EVs), membrane vesicles released by all cells, are emerging mediators of cell-cell communication. By carrying biomolecules from tissues to biofluids, EVs have attracted attention as non-invasive sources of clinical biomarkers in liquid biopsies. EVs-based liquid biopsies usually require EVs isolation before content analysis, which frequently increases sample volume requirements. We here present a Flow Cytometry (FC) strategy that does not require isolation or concentration of EVs prior to staining. By doing so, it enables population analysis of EVs in samples characterized by challenging small volumes, while reducing overall sample processing time. To illustrate its application, we performed longitudinal non-lethal population analysis of EVs in mouse plasma and in single-animal collections of murine vitreous humor. By quantifying the proportion of vesicular particles in purified and non-purified biological samples, this method also serves as a precious tool to quality control isolates of EVs purified by different protocols. Our FC strategy has an unexplored clinical potential to analyze EVs in biofluids with intrinsically limited volumes and to multiply the number of different analytes in EVs that can be studied from a single collection of biofluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Maia
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal.,Graduate Program in Areas of Basic and Applied Biology, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Silvia Batista
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nuno Couto
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal.,Digestive Unit, Champalimaud Clinical Centre, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana C Gregório
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Cristian Bodo
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Julia Elzanowska
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Bruno Costa-Silva
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
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22
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Garripelli VK, Wu Z, Gupta S. Developability assessment for monoclonal antibody drug candidates: a case study. Pharm Dev Technol 2020; 26:11-20. [PMID: 32986499 DOI: 10.1080/10837450.2020.1829641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Various screening approaches are used by industry to evaluate development risks associated with discovery candidates. This process has become more complicated with biological therapeutics, a class dominated by monoclonal antibodies (mAb), and, increasingly, their derivative constructs. Effective early assessment for drug-like properties (DLP) can save time and costs by allowing a more complete consideration of issues that could impact the desired end result of a stable drug product. Here we report a case study of four IgG1 mAbs, with sequence variations in the variable domain region, screened as a set of possible drug candidates. Our comprehensive, tiered approach used a battery of analytical tools to assess molecular characteristics, conformational stability, colloidal stability, and short-term storage stability. While most DLP for the four candidates were developmentally acceptable and comparable, mAb-2 was associated with adverse colloidal properties. Further investigation of mAb-2 in an expanded pH range revealed a propensity for phase separation, indicating a need for the additional product development effort. Our results support that comprehensive DLP assessments in an expanded pH range are beneficial in identifying development options for promising molecules that show challenging stability trends. This adaptable approach may be especially useful in the development of increasingly complex antibody constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Kumar Garripelli
- Pharmaceutical Development, Oncology Early Development CMC Biologics, AbbVie, Redwood City, CA, USA
| | - Zhen Wu
- ADC Therapeutics, San Mateo, CA, USA
| | - Supriya Gupta
- Pharmaceutical Development, Oncology Early Development CMC Biologics, AbbVie, Redwood City, CA, USA
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23
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Tian Z, Xu L, Zhang N, Qian F. First-order nucleation and subsequent growth promote liquid-liquid phase separation of a model IgG1 mAb. Int J Pharm 2020; 588:119681. [PMID: 32721563 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Although protein aggregation is commonly encountered during the manufacturing and storage of bio-therapeutics, the actual aggregation mechanism remains unclear, and little has been reported about the protein aggregation kinetics from time zero under particular solution conditions. In this study, we used real-time dynamic light scattering (DLS) to continuously monitor the time-dependent evolution of the Z-average hydrodynamic radius of a model IgG1 (JM2) immediately after the JM2 solution was subjected to various low temperatures (0-4 °C). We observed that JM2 aggregated to form nuclei first, and then it subsequently grew to small liquid droplets via a two-step, first-order, reversible process without causing irreversible structural changes: a slow first step defined as the "nucleation" step, wherein nuclei formed slowly until reaching a transitional time point (tonset), and a much faster second step initiated after tonset and the nucleus size of the protein increased rapidly, which eventually caused liquid droplet formation and liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). The "nucleation" rate constant (Knucleation) and particle growth rate constant (Kgrowth), as well as tonset, were found to be temperature, pH and concentration dependent. The aggregation of JM2 could be universally described by these two-step first-order kinetics: under conditions where JM2 aggregated very slowly, the second step was not observed within the experimental time scale, while under conditions where JM2 aggregated very rapidly, the first step could not be recorded. We believe that these three parameters, Knucleation, Kgrowth, and tonset, can be used to quantify and compare the aggregation kinetics of JM2 under different solution and temperature conditions and, furthermore, serve as a theoretical base to account for the key characteristics of the aggregation kinetics of JM2 and other protein therapeutics under conditions of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Tian
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, and Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
| | - Long Xu
- Biotherapeutics Development, Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Biotherapeutics Development, Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Feng Qian
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, and Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China.
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24
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Khanal O, Kumar V, Schlegel F, Lenhoff AM. Estimating and leveraging protein diffusion on ion-exchange resin surfaces. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:7004-7010. [PMID: 32179691 PMCID: PMC7132105 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1921499117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein mobility at solid-liquid interfaces can affect the performance of applications such as bioseparations and biosensors by facilitating reorganization of adsorbed protein, accelerating molecular recognition, and informing the fundamentals of adsorption. In the case of ion-exchange chromatographic beads with small, tortuous pores, where the existence of surface diffusion is often not recognized, slow mass transfer can result in lower resin capacity utilization. We demonstrate that accounting for and exploiting protein surface diffusion can alleviate the mass-transfer limitations on multiple significant length scales. Although the surface diffusivity has previously been shown to correlate with ionic strength (IS) and binding affinity, we show that the dependence is solely on the binding affinity, irrespective of pH, IS, and resin ligand density. Different surface diffusivities give rise to different protein distributions within the resin, as characterized using confocal microscopy and small-angle neutron scattering (length scales of micrometer and nanometer, respectively). The binding dependence of surface diffusion inspired a protein-loading approach in which the binding affinity, and hence the surface diffusivity, is modulated by varying IS. Such gradient loading increased the protein uptake efficiency by up to 43%, corroborating the importance of protein surface diffusion in protein transport in ion-exchange chromatography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ohnmar Khanal
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | - Vijesh Kumar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | | | - Abraham M Lenhoff
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716;
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25
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Abstract
A proof of concept for new methodology to detect and potentially quantify mAb aggregation is presented. Assay development included using an aggregated mAb as bait for screening of a phage display peptide library and identifying those peptides with random sequence which can recognize mAb aggregates. The selected peptides can be used for developing homogeneous quantitative methods to assess mAb aggregation. Results indicate that a peptide-binding method coupled with fluorescence polarization detection can detect mAb aggregation and potentially monitor the propensity of therapeutic protein candidates to aggregate.
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26
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Gentiluomo L, Roessner D, Streicher W, Mahapatra S, Harris P, Frieß W. Characterization of Native Reversible Self-Association of a Monoclonal Antibody Mediated by Fab-Fab Interaction. J Pharm Sci 2020; 109:443-451. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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27
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Hu Y, Toth RT, Joshi SB, Esfandiary R, Middaugh CR, Volkin DB, Weis DD. Characterization of Excipient Effects on Reversible Self-Association, Backbone Flexibility, and Solution Properties of an IgG1 Monoclonal Antibody at High Concentrations: Part 2. J Pharm Sci 2020; 109:353-363. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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28
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Hu Y, Arora J, Joshi SB, Esfandiary R, Middaugh CR, Weis DD, Volkin DB. Characterization of Excipient Effects on Reversible Self-Association, Backbone Flexibility, and Solution Properties of an IgG1 Monoclonal Antibody at High Concentrations: Part 1. J Pharm Sci 2020; 109:340-352. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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29
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Nishinami S, Kameda T, Arakawa T, Shiraki K. Hydantoin and Its Derivatives Reduce the Viscosity of Concentrated Antibody Formulations by Inhibiting Associations via Hydrophobic Amino Acid Residues. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b01739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Suguru Nishinami
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Tomoshi Kameda
- Artificial Intelligence Research Center, Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2-4-7 Aomi, Koto, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Arakawa
- a Division of KBI Biopharma, Alliance Protein Laboratories, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Kentaro Shiraki
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
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30
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Tian Y, Huang L, Ruotolo BT, Wang N. Hydrogen/deuterium exchange-mass spectrometry analysis of high concentration biotherapeutics: application to phase-separated antibody formulations. MAbs 2019; 11:779-788. [PMID: 30890021 PMCID: PMC6601547 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2019.1589850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
High concentration biotherapeutic formulations are often required to deliver large doses of drugs to achieve a desired degree of efficacy and less frequent dose. However, highly concentrated protein-containing solutions may exhibit undesirable therapeutic properties, such as increased viscosity, aggregation, and phase separation that can affect drug efficacy and raise safety issues. The characterization of high concentration protein formulations is a critical yet challenging analytical task for therapeutic development efforts, due to the lack of technologies capable of making accurate measurements under such conditions. To address this issue, we developed a novel dilution-free hydrogen/deuterium exchange (HDX) mass spectrometry (MS) method for the direct conformational analysis of high concentration biotherapeutics. Here, we particularly focused on studying phase separation phenomenon that can occur at high protein concentrations. First, two aliquots of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were dialyzed in either hydrogen- or deuterium-containing buffers at low salt and pH. Phases that separated were then discretely sampled and subjected to dilution-free HDX-MS analysis through mixing the non-deuterated and deuterated protein aliquots. Our HDX-MS results analyzed at a global protein level reveal less deuterium incorporation for the protein-enriched phase compared to the protein-depleted phase present in high concentration formulations. A peptide level analysis further confirmed these observed differences, and a detailed statistical analysis provided direct information surrounding the details of the conformational changes observed. Based on our HDX-MS results, we propose possible structures for the self-associated mAbs present at high concentrations. Our new method can potentially provide useful insights into the unusual behavior of therapeutic proteins in high concentration formulations, aiding their development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwei Tian
- a Bioproduct Research and Development , Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company , Indianapolis , IN , USA.,b Department of Chemistry , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , MI , USA
| | - Lihua Huang
- a Bioproduct Research and Development , Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company , Indianapolis , IN , USA
| | - Brandon T Ruotolo
- b Department of Chemistry , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , MI , USA
| | - Ning Wang
- a Bioproduct Research and Development , Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company , Indianapolis , IN , USA
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31
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Shan L, Mody N, Sormani P, Rosenthal KL, Damschroder MM, Esfandiary R. Developability Assessment of Engineered Monoclonal Antibody Variants with a Complex Self-Association Behavior Using Complementary Analytical and in Silico Tools. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:5697-5710. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b00867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Pietro Sormani
- Centre for Misfolding Diseases, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
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32
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Mitrea DM, Chandra B, Ferrolino MC, Gibbs EB, Tolbert M, White MR, Kriwacki RW. Methods for Physical Characterization of Phase-Separated Bodies and Membrane-less Organelles. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:4773-4805. [PMID: 30017918 PMCID: PMC6503534 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Membrane-less organelles are cellular structures which arise through the phenomenon of phase separation. This process enables compartmentalization of specific sets of macromolecules (e.g., proteins, nucleic acids), thereby regulating cellular processes by increasing local concentration, and modulating the structure and dynamics of their constituents. Understanding the connection between structure, material properties and function of membrane-less organelles requires inter-disciplinary approaches, which address length and timescales that span several orders of magnitude (e.g., Ångstroms to micrometer, picoseconds to hours). In this review, we discuss the wide variety of methods that have been applied to characterize the morphology, rheology, structure and dynamics of membrane-less organelles and their components, in vitro and in live cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Mitrea
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
| | - Bappaditya Chandra
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Mylene C Ferrolino
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Eric B Gibbs
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Michele Tolbert
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Michael R White
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Richard W Kriwacki
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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33
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Oki S, Nishinami S, Shiraki K. Arginine suppresses opalescence and liquid–liquid phase separation in IgG solutions. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 118:1708-1712. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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34
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Wang W, Roberts CJ. Protein aggregation – Mechanisms, detection, and control. Int J Pharm 2018; 550:251-268. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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35
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Matsuda A, Mimura M, Maruyama T, Kurinomaru T, Shiuhei M, Shiraki K. Liquid Droplet of Protein-Polyelectrolyte Complex for High-Concentration Formulations. J Pharm Sci 2018; 107:2713-2719. [PMID: 29960025 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The formulation of high-concentration protein solutions is a challenging issue for achieving subcutaneous administration. Previously, we developed a method of precipitation-redissolution using polyelectrolyte as a precipitant to produce protein solutions at high concentrations. However, the redissolution yield of proteins was insufficient. This study aims to optimize the solution conditions for practical applications by combining IgG and poly-l-(glutamic acid) (polyE). A systematic analysis of solution pH and polyE size conditions revealed that an acidic condition favors precipitation, whereas neutral pH values are more effective for the redissolution. We find that the optimal size for polyE ranged from 15,000 to 50,000. This slight modification in the procedure in comparison with previous studies increased the precipitation and redissolution yields to nearly 100%, without irreversible protein denaturation. The fully reversible IgG-polyE complex formed as a droplet structure, which is similar to a condensate of liquid-liquid phase separation. The droplet structure plays an indispensable role in the salt-induced, redissolved state, which is pertinent to the new application that takes advantage of the methods to produce highly concentrated protein solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayumi Matsuda
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Masahiro Mimura
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Takuya Maruyama
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
| | - Takaaki Kurinomaru
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8566, Japan
| | - Mieda Shiuhei
- Research and Development Center, Terumo Corporation, Nakai-machi, Ashigarakami-gun, Kanagawa 259-0151, Japan
| | - Kentaro Shiraki
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan.
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36
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Kastelic M, Vlachy V. Theory for the Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation in Aqueous Antibody Solutions. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:5400-5408. [PMID: 29338267 PMCID: PMC5980754 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b11458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This study presents the theory for liquid-liquid phase separation for systems of molecules modeling monoclonal antibodies. Individual molecule is depicted as an assembly of seven hard spheres, organized to mimic the Y-shaped antibody. We consider the antibody-antibody interactions either through Fab, Fab' (two Fab fragments may be different), or Fc domain. Interaction between these three domains of the molecule (hereafter denoted as A, B, and C, respectively) is modeled by a short-range square-well attraction. To obtain numerical results for the model under study, we adapt Wertheim's thermodynamic perturbation theory. We use this model to calculate the liquid-liquid phase separation curve and the second virial coefficient B2. Various interaction scenarios are examined to see how the strength of the site-site interactions and their range shape the coexistence curve. In the asymmetric case, where an attraction between two sites is favored and the interaction energies for the other sites kept constant, critical temperature first increases and than strongly decreases. Some more microscopic information, for example, the probability for the particular two sites to be connected, has been calculated. Analysis of the experimental liquid-liquid phase diagrams, obtained from literature, is presented. In addition, we calculate the second virial coefficient under conditions leading to the liquid-liquid phase separation and present this quantity on the graph B2 versus protein concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vojko Vlachy
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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37
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Hopkins MM, Lambert CL, Bee JS, Parupudi A, Bain DL. Determination of Interaction Parameters for Reversibly Self-Associating Antibodies: A Comparative Analysis. J Pharm Sci 2018; 107:1820-1830. [PMID: 29571738 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) represent a major class of biotherapeutics and are the fastest growing category of biologic drugs on the market. However, mAb development and formulation are often impeded by reversible self-association (RSA), defined as the dynamic exchange of monomers with native-state oligomers. Here, we present a comparative analysis of the self-association properties for 5 IgG mAbs, under matched conditions and using orthogonal methods. Concentration-dependent dynamic light scattering and sedimentation velocity studies revealed that the majority of mAbs examined exhibited weak to moderate RSA. However, because these studies were carried out at mAb concentrations in the mg/mL range, we also observed significant nonideality. Noting that nonideality frequently masks RSA and vice versa, we conducted direct boundary fitting of the sedimentation velocity data to determine stoichiometric binding models, interaction affinities, and nonideality terms for each mAb. These analyses revealed equilibrium constants from micromolar to millimolar and stoichiometric models from monomer-dimer to isodesmic. Moreover, even for those mAbs described by identical models, we observed distinct kinetics of self-association. The accuracy of the models and their corresponding equilibrium constants were addressed using sedimentation equilibrium and simulations. Overall, these results serve as the starting point for the comparative dissection of RSA mechanisms in therapeutic mAbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandi M Hopkins
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Cherie L Lambert
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Jared S Bee
- Analytical Sciences Department, MedImmune, LLC, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878
| | - Arun Parupudi
- Analytical Sciences Department, MedImmune, LLC, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878
| | - David L Bain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045.
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38
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Wang W, Lilyestrom WG, Hu ZY, Scherer TM. Cluster Size and Quinary Structure Determine the Rheological Effects of Antibody Self-Association at High Concentrations. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:2138-2154. [PMID: 29359938 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b10728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The question of how nonspecific reversible intermolecular protein interactions affect solution rheology at high concentrations is fundamentally rooted in the translation of nanometer-scale interactions into macroscopic properties. Well-defined solutions of purified monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) provide a useful system with which to investigate the manifold intricacies of weak protein interactions at high concentrations. Recently, characterization of self-associating IgG1 antibody (mAb2) solutions has established the direct role of protein clusters on concentrated mAb rheology. Expanding on our earlier work with three additional mAbs (mAb1, mAb3, and mAb4), the observed concentration-dependent static light scattering and rheological data present a substantially more complex relationship between protein interactions and solution viscosity at high concentrations. The four mAb systems exhibited divergent correlations between cluster formation (size) and concentrated solution viscosities dependent on mAb primary sequence and solution conditions. To address this challenge, well-established features of colloidal cluster phenomena could be applied as a framework for interpreting our observations. The initial stages of mAb cluster formation were investigated with small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and ensemble-optimized fit methods, to uncover shifts in the dimer structure populations which are produced by changes in mAb interaction modes and association valence under the different solution conditions. Analysis of mAb average cluster number and effective hydrodynamic radii at high concentrations revealed cluster architectures can have a wide range of fractal dimensions. Collectively, the static light scattering, SAXS, and rheological characterization demonstrate that nonspecific and anisotropic attractive intermolecular interactions produce antibody clusters with different quinary structures to regulate the rheological properties of concentrated mAb solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhua Wang
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech (a Member of the Roche Group) , 1 DNA Way, MS 56-1A, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Wayne G Lilyestrom
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech (a Member of the Roche Group) , 1 DNA Way, MS 56-1A, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Zhi Yu Hu
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech (a Member of the Roche Group) , 1 DNA Way, MS 56-1A, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Thomas M Scherer
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech (a Member of the Roche Group) , 1 DNA Way, MS 56-1A, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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39
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Uchiyama S, Noda M, Krayukhina E. Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation for characterization of therapeutic antibodies. Biophys Rev 2017; 10:259-269. [PMID: 29243091 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-017-0374-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation (SV-AUC) coupled with direct computational fitting of the observed concentration profiles (sedimentating boundary) have been developed and widely used for the characterization of macromolecules and nanoparticles in solution. In particular, size distribution analysis by SV-AUC has become a reliable and essential approach for the characterization of biopharmaceuticals including therapeutic antibodies. In this review, we describe the importance and advantages of SV-AUC for studying biopharmaceuticals, with an emphasis on strategies for sample preparation, data acquisition, and data analysis. Recent discoveries enabled by AUC with a fluorescence detection system and potential future applications are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susumu Uchiyama
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Masanori Noda
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,U-Medico Inc., Osaka, Japan
| | - Elena Krayukhina
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,U-Medico Inc., Osaka, Japan
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40
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Corbett D, Hebditch M, Keeling R, Ke P, Ekizoglou S, Sarangapani P, Pathak J, Van Der Walle CF, Uddin S, Baldock C, Avendaño C, Curtis RA. Coarse-Grained Modeling of Antibodies from Small-Angle Scattering Profiles. J Phys Chem B 2017; 121:8276-8290. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b04621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Corbett
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K
| | - Max Hebditch
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K
| | - Rose Keeling
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K
| | - Peng Ke
- Formulation
Sciences, MedImmune Ltd, Aaron Klug Building, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, U.K
| | - Sofia Ekizoglou
- Formulation
Sciences, MedImmune Ltd, Aaron Klug Building, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, U.K
| | - Prasad Sarangapani
- Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, 777
Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591, United States
| | - Jai Pathak
- Vaccine
Research Center, National Institute of Health, 9 West Watkins Mill Road, Suite
250, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | | | - Shahid Uddin
- Formulation
Sciences, MedImmune Ltd, Aaron Klug Building, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, U.K
| | - Clair Baldock
- Division
of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, U.K
| | - Carlos Avendaño
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K
| | - Robin A. Curtis
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Sackville Street, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K
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41
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Wu G, Wang S, Tian Z, Zhang N, Sheng H, Dai W, Qian F. Elucidating the weak protein-protein interaction mechanisms behind the liquid-liquid phase separation of a mAb solution by different types of additives. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2017; 120:1-8. [PMID: 28754261 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2017.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 07/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) has long been observed during the physical stability investigation of therapeutic protein formulations. The buffer conditions and the presence of various excipients are thought to play important roles in the formulation development of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). In this study, the effects of several small-molecule excipients (histidine, alanine, glycine, sodium phosphate, sodium chloride, sorbitol and sucrose) with diverse physical-chemical properties on LLPS of a model IgG1 (JM2) solutions were investigated by multiple techniques, including UV-vis spectroscopy, circular dichroism, differential scanning calorimetry/fluorimetry, size exclusion chromatography and dynamic light scattering. The LLPS of JM2 was confirmed to be a thermodynamic equilibrium process with no structural changes or irreversible aggregation of proteins. Phase diagrams of various JM2 formulations were constructed, suggesting that the phase behavior of JM2 was dependent on the solution pH, ionic strength and the presence of other excipients such as glycine, alanine, sorbitol and sucrose. Furthermore, we demonstrated that for this mAb, the interaction parameter (kD) determined at low protein concentration appeared to be a good predictor for the occurrence of LLPS at high concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoliang Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shujing Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhou Tian
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- China R&D and Scientific Affair, Shanghai Discovery Center, Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Han Sheng
- China R&D and Scientific Affair, Shanghai Discovery Center, Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Weiguo Dai
- Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Malvern, PA 19355, USA
| | - Feng Qian
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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42
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Aggregative protein–polyelectrolyte complex for high-concentration formulation of protein drugs. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 100:11-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Revised: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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43
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Kheddo P, Bramham JE, Dearman RJ, Uddin S, van der Walle CF, Golovanov AP. Investigating Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation of a Monoclonal Antibody Using Solution-State NMR Spectroscopy: Effect of Arg·Glu and Arg·HCl. Mol Pharm 2017; 14:2852-2860. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Kheddo
- Manchester
Institute of Biotechnology and School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Jack E. Bramham
- Manchester
Institute of Biotechnology and School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Rebecca J. Dearman
- School
of Biological Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K
| | - Shahid Uddin
- Formulation
Sciences, MedImmune Ltd., Aaron Klug Building, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, U.K
| | | | - Alexander P. Golovanov
- Manchester
Institute of Biotechnology and School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, U.K
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44
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Cheung CSF, Anderson KW, Patel PM, Cade KL, Phinney KW, Turko IV. A new approach to quantification of mAb aggregates using peptide affinity probes. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42497. [PMID: 28186164 PMCID: PMC5301252 DOI: 10.1038/srep42497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Using mAbs as therapeutic molecules is complicated by the propensity of mAbs to aggregate at elevated concentrations, which can lead to a variety of adverse events in treatment. Here, we describe a proof-of-concept for new methodology to detect and quantify mAb aggregation. Assay development included using an aggregated mAb as bait for screening of phage display peptide library and identifying those peptides with random sequence which can recognize mAb aggregates. Once identified, the selected peptides can be used for developing quantitative methods to assess mAb aggregation. Results indicate that a peptide binding method coupled with mass spectrometric detection of bound peptide can quantify mAb aggregation and potentially be useful for monitoring aggregation propensity of therapeutic protein candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal S F Cheung
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA.,Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Kyle W Anderson
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA.,Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Pooja M Patel
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Keale L Cade
- Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Karen W Phinney
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA
| | - Illarion V Turko
- Biomolecular Measurement Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA.,Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
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45
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Liquid-liquid phase separation causes high turbidity and pressure during low pH elution process in Protein A chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1488:57-67. [PMID: 28159365 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.01.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Turbid elution pools and high column back pressure are common during elution of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) by acidic pH in Protein A chromatography. This phenomenon has been historically attributed to acid-induced precipitation of incorrectly folded or pH-sensitive mAbs and host cell proteins (HCPs). In this work, we propose a new mechanism that may account for some observations of elution turbidity in Protein A chromatography. We report several examples of turbidity and high column back pressure occurring transiently under a short course of neutral conditions during Protein A elution. A systematic study of three mAbs displaying this behavior revealed phase separation characterized by liquid drops under certain conditions including neutral pH, low ionic strength, and high protein concentration. These liquid droplets caused solution turbidity and exhibited extremely high viscosity, resulting in high column back pressure. We found out that the droplets were formed through liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) as a result of protein self-association. We also found multiple factors, including pH, temperature, ionic strength, and protein concentration can affect LLPS behaviors. Careful selection of process parameters during protein A elution, including temperature, flow rate, buffer, and salt can inhibit formation of a dense liquid phase, reducing both turbidity (by 90%) and column back pressure (below 20 pounds per square inch). These findings provide both mechanistic insight and practical mitigation strategies for Protein A chromatography induced LLPS.
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46
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Liquid-liquid phase separation of a monoclonal antibody at low ionic strength: Influence of anion charge and concentration. Biophys Chem 2017; 220:7-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2016] [Revised: 08/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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47
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Thompson RW, Latypov RF, Wang Y, Lomakin A, Meyer JA, Vunnum S, Benedek GB. Evaluation of effects of pH and ionic strength on colloidal stability of IgG solutions by PEG-induced liquid-liquid phase separation. J Chem Phys 2016; 145:185101. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4966708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ronald W. Thompson
- Process and Product Development, Amgen Inc., Seattle, Washington 98119, USA
| | - Ramil F. Latypov
- Process and Product Development, Amgen Inc., Seattle, Washington 98119, USA
| | - Ying Wang
- Materials Processing Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Aleksey Lomakin
- Materials Processing Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Julie A. Meyer
- Process and Product Development, Amgen Inc., Seattle, Washington 98119, USA
| | - Suresh Vunnum
- Process and Product Development, Amgen Inc., Seattle, Washington 98119, USA
| | - George B. Benedek
- Materials Processing Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Center for Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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48
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Li W, Prabakaran P, Chen W, Zhu Z, Feng Y, Dimitrov DS. Antibody Aggregation: Insights from Sequence and Structure. Antibodies (Basel) 2016; 5:antib5030019. [PMID: 31558000 PMCID: PMC6698864 DOI: 10.3390/antib5030019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are the fastest-growing biological therapeutics with important applications ranging from cancers, autoimmunity diseases and metabolic disorders to emerging infectious diseases. Aggregation of mAbs continues to be a major problem in their developability. Antibody aggregation could be triggered by partial unfolding of its domains, leading to monomer-monomer association followed by nucleation and growth. Although the aggregation propensities of antibodies and antibody-based proteins can be affected by the external experimental conditions, they are strongly dependent on the intrinsic antibody properties as determined by their sequences and structures. In this review, we describe how the unfolding and aggregation susceptibilities of IgG could be related to their cognate sequences and structures. The impact of antibody domain structures on thermostability and aggregation propensities, and effective strategies to reduce aggregation are discussed. Finally, the aggregation of antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) as related to their sequence/structure, linker payload, conjugation chemistry and drug-antibody ratio (DAR) is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Protein Interactions Section, Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
| | | | - Weizao Chen
- Protein Interactions Section, Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
| | - Zhongyu Zhu
- Protein Interactions Section, Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
| | - Yang Feng
- Protein Interactions Section, Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
| | - Dimiter S Dimitrov
- Protein Interactions Section, Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
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49
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Yang TC, Langford AJ, Kumar S, Ruesch JC, Wang W. Trimerization Dictates Solution Opalescence of a Monoclonal Antibody. J Pharm Sci 2016; 105:2328-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2016.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 05/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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50
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Geoghegan JC, Fleming R, Damschroder M, Bishop SM, Sathish HA, Esfandiary R. Mitigation of reversible self-association and viscosity in a human IgG1 monoclonal antibody by rational, structure-guided Fv engineering. MAbs 2016; 8:941-50. [PMID: 27050875 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2016.1171444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Undesired solution behaviors such as reversible self-association (RSA), high viscosity, and liquid-liquid phase separation can introduce substantial challenges during development of monoclonal antibody formulations. Although a global mechanistic understanding of RSA (i.e., native and reversible protein-protein interactions) is sufficient to develop robust formulation controls, its mitigation via protein engineering requires knowledge of the sites of protein-protein interactions. In the study reported here, we coupled our previous hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry findings with structural modeling and in vitro screening to identify the residues responsible for RSA of a model IgG1 monoclonal antibody (mAb-C), and rationally engineered variants with improved solution properties (i.e., reduced RSA and viscosity). Our data show that mutation of either solvent-exposed aromatic residues within the heavy and light chain variable regions or buried residues within the heavy chain/light chain interface can significantly mitigate RSA and viscosity by reducing the IgG's surface hydrophobicity. The engineering strategy described here highlights the utility of integrating complementary experimental and in silico methods to identify mutations that can improve developability, in particular, high concentration solution properties, of candidate therapeutic antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Geoghegan
- a Department of Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering , MedImmune , Gaithersburg , MD , USA
| | - Ryan Fleming
- a Department of Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering , MedImmune , Gaithersburg , MD , USA
| | - Melissa Damschroder
- a Department of Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering , MedImmune , Gaithersburg , MD , USA
| | - Steven M Bishop
- b Department of Formulation Sciences , MedImmune , Gaithersburg , MD , USA
| | - Hasige A Sathish
- b Department of Formulation Sciences , MedImmune , Gaithersburg , MD , USA
| | - Reza Esfandiary
- b Department of Formulation Sciences , MedImmune , Gaithersburg , MD , USA
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