Clothes Make a Difference: The Role of Self-Objectification

Brains over beauty: A preregistered test of the effects of objectification on women's cognitive performance

The present study was a preregistered, well-powered experimental test of findings related to the effect of state self-objectification and anticipation of the sexualized male gaze on women's cognitive performance. College women (n = 407) performed a working memory task in one of three randomly assigned conditions. In the experimental conditions (self-objectification and male gaze), women completed the task while being video recorded from the neck down. In the male gaze condition, participants were told their videos would later be evaluated by men as part of a separate dating study. Women in the control condition were not video recorded. Results indicated women experienced a moderate increase in state self-objectification in both experimental conditions. However, compared to the control condition, women in the experimental conditions did not show reduced performance on the working memory task (in either latency or accuracy), decreases in body satisfaction, or increases in negative mood. Across conditions, state self-objectification was not associated with accuracy or latency on the working memory task. Mixed findings concerning objectification's effect on cognitive performance may be attributed to variability in experimental manipulations and dependent variables employed in this area of research.

Evaluating the Evidence for Enclothed Cognition: Z-Curve and Meta-Analyses

Enclothed cognition refers to the systematic influence that clothes can have on the wearer's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors through their symbolic meaning. It has attracted considerable academic and nonacademic interest, with the 2012 article that coined the phrase cited more than 600 times and covered in more than 160 news outlets. However, a recent high-powered replication failed to replicate one of the original effects. To determine whether the larger body of research on enclothed cognition possesses evidential value and replicable effects, we performed z-curve and meta-analyses using 105 effects from 40 studies across 24 articles (N = 3,789). Underscoring the marked improvement of psychological research practices in the mid-2010s, our results raise concerns about the replicability of early enclothed cognition studies but affirm the evidential value for effects published after 2015. These later studies support the core principle of enclothed cognition-what we wear influences how we think, feel, and act.

When body positivity falls flat: Divergent effects of body acceptance messages that support vs. undermine basic psychological needs

Although women now have access to messaging about body acceptance, the risks and benefits of such messaging are not well-researched. Using a self-determination theory framework, we contrasted need-supportive versus need-undermining messages about body acceptance. One message supported the basic psychological need for autonomy (i.e., personal agency to accept one's body); one targeted the basic need for body acceptance from others; and one used pressure to elicit body positivity - a need-undermining strategy. We contrasted these messages with one another and with a typical message of thinness idealization. In Experiments 1-4, we found that pressuring pro-body messages were more harmful to body image than messages that used autonomy support and acceptance from others. That is, they produced more pressure, less agency, and lower acceptance. Moreover, Experiments 2-4 showed that need-supportive messages increased state self-esteem from baseline, whereas pressuring body positivity did not. In Experiment 3 message-related self-perceptions mediated the effect of need-supportive messages on state self-esteem. In Experiment 4, need-supportive body acceptance messages reduced body shame and body surveillance, whereas pressure to be body positive did not - and this effect was mediated by body satisfaction induced by the message. We highlight the important difference between need-supportive and need-undermining body positivity.

Validation of the Chinese Version of the Self-Objectification Beliefs and Behaviors Scale

Given the limitations of the existing tools used for measuring self-objectification in China, this study aims to validate the Chinese version of the self-objectification beliefs and behaviors scale (C-SOBBS). In this study, we first translated and culturally adopted SOBBS to the Chinese context. We conducted two wave surveys. In the first-wave survey, we recruited 331 female college students whose age ranged from 18 to 35 (M_age=20.28, SD=2.99) to complete an online survey that included demographic questions, C-SOBBS, and four other scales to assess the validity of C-SOBBS. In the second-wave survey, 76 participants who took part in the first-wave survey completed the C-SOBBS at a two-week interval for the assessment of test-retest stability. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to validate the factor structure of the C-SOBBS. The relationship between the C-SOBBS, its factors, and four other measures demonstrated that the C-SOBBS has a convergent and discriminant validity. Furthermore, the results of hierarchical multiple regression demonstrated the C-SOBBS’s incremental validity related to the Female Questionnaire of Trait Self-Objectification and Objectified Body Consciousness-Surveillance subscale. Additionally, the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the C-SOBBS were also verified. The results of this study demonstrate the utility of the C-SOBBS in assessing the self-objectification beliefs and behaviors of young Chinese women within the context of Chinese culture.

These Boots Weren't Made for Walking: Gendered Discrepancies in Wearing Painful, Restricting, or Distracting Clothing

Using the framework of objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts in Psychology of Women Quarterly 21(2): 173–206, 1997), the current studies explored how often women (vs. men) reported wearing clothing that is painful, distracting, and/or restricting (PDR clothing). Additionally, we examined differences in body surveillance (i.e., chronically monitoring the appearance of one’s body) and body appreciation between those who reported wearing various types of PDR clothing and those who did not. In both a sample of U.S. college students (n = 545) and a broader sample of U.S. adults (n = 252), results indicated that women were substantially more likely to wear PDR clothing than men. Across both samples, the largest differences between men and women were in wearing uncomfortable or painful shoes and in wearing clothing that is distracting because it requires ongoing monitoring or adjusting. Women and men with higher body surveillance were more likely to report wearing PDR clothing. Though some findings pointed toward a negative association between body appreciation and wearing PDR clothing, these results were inconsistent. Overall, results were consistent with the notion that the gendered nature of clothing might reflect and provoke chronic vigilance of the body’s appearance. Gendered differences in the extent to which clothing promotes comfort and movement vs. discomfort and distraction has clear implications for women’s quality of life.

Sex-Differentiated Attire’s Impact on Individual Action and Mate Selection

Various theories highlight the importance of using the actor/environment as the ideal unit for theoretical and experimental focus. Clothing, placed as it is as the intermediary between body and environment, is typically treated as a symbol rather than as either an integral part of either the body or the environment. When clothing is considered an extension of the body, the historical development of clothing reflects persistent differences in the physical capabilities of the human animal and operates as an instrument for solo action. In addition, it is argued that due to the ecological mechanisms connecting perception and action, differential clothing options for the sexes has led in no small part to differences in self-perception as well as the perception of others. However, when it comes to the very specific behavior of mate selection and procreation, clothing can be understood as a tether between two systemic units, offering a description of a system that allows for communication of potential social affordances and opportunities for joint action.

Exploring adolescent girls' experiences of body talk in non-aesthetic sport

INTRODUCTION

Body image concerns may contribute to poor sport experiences and low sport participation in girls. Objectification theory and evidence from studies in non-sport contexts suggests body talk may elicit an environment that fosters negative body image. However, the phenomenon of body talk within adolescent girls sport is not well-understood from an in-depth person-centered perspective. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to explore adolescent girl athletes' experiences of body talk within sport.

METHODS

Twenty Canadian girl athletes (ages 14-18 years) enrolled in team-based non-aesthetic sports participated in one semi-structured interview. Using a qualitative description approach, an inductive thematic analysis was used to generate three themes.

RESULTS

"Body talk as a performance tactic" highlighted complimentary and negative body talk pertaining to sport performance came from coaches, opposing players, and parents. "Casual conversations and body talk" reflected body talk from teammates and male spectators that was not specific to sport but occurred in the sport context. "Coping with body talk" reflected strategies athletes used to combat negative body talk from teammates, and reflected the athletes' perceptions that negativity towards the body is normative.

CONCLUSIONS

Body talk served many purposes within sport; researchers should further explore the diverse motivations and perceived utility of body talk across sport stakeholders. Creating standardized resources and policies to eliminate body talk may foster more positive and supportive sport experiences for girls.

Psychometric Properties of the OBCS Body Shame Scale in a Sample of Female Residents in Puerto Rico

The purpose of this study is to analyze the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Body Shame scale within the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS) in a sample of women living in Puerto Rico. The sample consisted of 117 heterosexual women. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to evaluate the structure of the scale and internal consistency was examined. Findings revealed that the 6-item Spanish version of the Body Shame scale shows better model-data fit than the original 8-item version. The results of the study support the use of the final 6-item version of the Body Shame scale in research and practice, given that it demonstrated appropriate structure and internal consistency. In conclusion, the findings support the use of the 6-item version of the Body Shame scale.

Selfie-Viewing and Facial Dissatisfaction among Emerging Adults: A Moderated Mediation Model of Appearance Comparisons and Self-Objectification

With the visual turn in online communication, selfies have become common on social media. Although selfies as a way of self-representation provide people with more chances to express themselves, the adverse effects selfies could bring to users' body image need to be treated seriously. This study tested whether selfie-viewing behaviour on social media was related to facial dissatisfaction and whether appearance comparisons played a mediating role. Moreover, the self-objectification was examined as a moderator between selfie-viewing behaviour and facial dissatisfaction via appearance comparisons. Results showed that more selfie-viewing was associated with higher facial dissatisfaction, and this relationship was mediated by appearance comparisons. The study also found that self-objectification moderated the indirect relation between selfie-viewing and facial dissatisfaction via appearance comparisons. Gender differences were also found to affect the mediation model. Our research provides new insights into the interactions between social media use and perception of body image.

The (Female) Graduate: Choice and Consequences of Women's Clothing

This research investigates how female students choose their graduation outfit and how clothing affects observers’ judgments. In Study 1, we manipulated the students’ graduation outfit so as to look professional or sexy. Female peers, adults, and professors formed a first impression about the students, their thesis work and guessed their graduation scores (thesis points and final mark). All participant groups judged the professionally dressed students as more competent, as having put more effort in their thesis, and as having obtained better scores than when the same students dressed sexy. In Studies 2 and 3 we replicated previous findings by using photos portraying real students in their actual graduation outfits. We found that sexy clothing, considered inappropriate for the occasion, affected estimated and actual graduation scores negatively and that this effect was mediated by perceived incompetence. Results are discussed with respect to women’s evaluation on the basis of their appearance.

The multidimensional self-objectification process from adolescence to emerging adulthood

This longitudinal study (N = 400, 54.5% female) explores the relationships between three components of self-objectification: the internalization of the media's appearance ideals, the valuing of appearance over competence, and body surveillance. The study adds to the self-objectification literature by taking a long-term, developmental approach. The relationships are examined over 6-month intervals during adolescence and a 5-year interval from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Furthermore, this study is the first to examine relationships between different components of self-objectification at the within-person level and, thus, study personal changes over time. Most notably, an increase in internalization during adolescence predicted subsequent increases in valuing appearance over competence and body surveillance five years later, when the respondents had reached emerging adulthood. No evidence for gender differences was found. Implications for the development of self-objectification from adolescence to emerging adulthood and the difference between within- and between-person effects are discussed.

Experimental Studies on State Self-Objectification: A Review and an Integrative Process Model

This paper provides an organizing framework for the experimental research on the effects of state self-objectification on women. We explain why this body of work, which had grown rapidly in the last 20 years, departs from the original formulation of objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997). We compare the different operationalizations of state self-objectification and examine how they map onto its theoretical definition, concluding that the operationalizations have focused mostly on one component of this construct (concerns about one's physical appearance) while neglecting others (adopting a third-person perspective and treating oneself as a dehumanized object). We review the main findings of studies that experimentally induced state self-objectification and examined its affective, motivational, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological outcomes. We note that three core outcomes of this state as specified by objectification theory (safety anxiety, reduced flow experiences, and awareness of internal body states) have hardly been examined so far. Most importantly, we introduce an integrative process model, suggesting that the reported effects are triggered by four different mechanisms: appearance monitoring, experience of discrepancy from appearance standards, stereotype threat, and activation of the "sex object" schema. We propose strategies for distinguishing between these mechanisms and explain the theoretical and practical importance of doing so.

The protective role of body appreciation against media-induced body dissatisfaction

This study aimed to examine the protective role of positive body image against negative effects produced by viewing thin-idealised media. University women (N=68) completed trait measures of body appreciation and media protective strategies. At a subsequent session, participants viewed 11 thin-ideal advertisements. Body dissatisfaction was assessed before and after advertisement exposure, and state measures of self-objectification, appearance comparison, and media protective strategies were completed. Results indicated that body appreciation predicted less change in body dissatisfaction following exposure, such that participants with low body appreciation experienced increased body dissatisfaction, while those with high body appreciation did not. Although state appearance comparison predicted increased body dissatisfaction, neither state self-objectification nor appearance comparison accounted for body appreciation's protective effect. Trait and state media protective strategies positively correlated with body appreciation, but also did not account for body appreciation's protective effect. The results point to intervention targets and highlight future research directions.