High school students’ math and science gender stereotypes: relations with their STEM outcomes and socializers’ stereotypes

"We're not educated on that enough, and we really should be": adolescents' views of mental health service education

PURPOSE

Despite the susceptibility to the experience of mental distress during adolescence, this population often demonstrate poor help-seeking behaviours. Efforts have been made by schools to address adolescents' knowledge around mental health; less focus has been given to addressing their knowledge of mental health services and avenues for help-seeking. This study aimed to explore adolescents' views of mental health services education.

METHODS

An interpretive descriptive design was adopted. Thirty adolescents from Ireland participated in individual interviews. Data were analysed using content analysis.

TWO THEMES WERE IDENTIFIED

Recognizing Gaps in Knowledge about Mental Health Service Education, and Enhancing Mental Health Service Education for Young People. Participants reported gaps in their knowledge about mental health services and were uncertain how to access help. Current strategies (e.g., print media) were considered tokenistic and ineffective; instead, multimedia (film/TV) approaches were recommended.

RESULTS

Two themes were identified: Recognizing Gaps in Knowledge about Mental HealthService Education, and Enhancing Mental Health Service Education for YoungPeople. Participants reported gaps in their knowledge about mental healthservices and were uncertain how to access help. Current strategies (e.g., print media) were considered tokenistic and ineffective; instead, multimedia (film/TV) approaches were recommended.

CONCLUSIONS

Current mental health education programmes need to expand their focus beyond social/emotional well-being, providing adolescents with the knowledge they need to access appropriate supports. Considering traditional print media was viewed as ineffective, while film/TV had an influence on perceptions of mental health services, a multimedia approach to education may be an effective way of engaging this population.

Childhood experiences and undergraduate student interest in STEM disciplines: Attending to setting and activity type

Informal STEM learning experiences (ISLEs), such as participating in science, computing, and engineering clubs and camps, have been associated with the development of youth's science, technology, engineering, and mathematics interests and career aspirations. However, research on ISLEs predominantly focuses on institutional settings such as museums and science centers, which are often discursively inaccessible to youth who identify with minoritized demographic groups. Using latent class analysis, we identify five general profiles (i.e., classes) of childhood participation in ISLEs from data reported by a nationally representative sample of college students (N = 15,579). Results show that childhood participation in specific typologies of ISLEs (i.e., setting and activity type) is associated with youth's disciplinary interests at the end of high school. Participation in outdoor activities that invite observation is more often reported by female respondents and is negatively associated with interest in computing and mathematics. Participation in indoor activities that invite object manipulation is more often reported by male respondents and is positively associated with interest in computing and engineering. However, frequent participation in multiple ISLEs is positively associated with interest in "science." These results elucidate stereotypical discourses that reinforce the exclusion of minoritized students and expose critical areas needing reform.

Tech-Savvy Men and Caring Women: Middle School Students’ Gender Stereotypes Predict Interest in Tech-Education

The labor market is strongly gender segregated with few women working in the tech sector (e.g., IT) and few men working in the care sector (e.g., nursing). We tested the hypothesis that middle school students strongly associate technology with men and caregiving with women in a Swedish context (i.e., a country that scores high in gender equality indices), and that these gender stereotypes for tech relate to girls’ lower interest in tech-focused education. We measured technology/caregiving gender stereotypes with implicit (the Implicit Association Test) and explicit (self-report) measures in a sample of middle school students (n = 873). The results supported the main hypotheses, and corroborate Eccles’s expectancy value theory, indicating that the endorsement of implicit gender stereotypes may serve as barriers to pursuing masculine-typed career paths for women. Further, a sample of middle school teachers (n = 86) showed stronger implicit gender stereotypes than the students. Unexpectedly, middle school girls with a foreign background showed no implicit gender stereotypes, which we discuss in relation to the gender-equality paradox. These findings suggest that to fulfill the recruitment needs of an increasingly digitalized world, the tech-industry and other stakeholders should put effort into counteracting the stereotype that technology is for men.

The roles of school racial climate and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics classroom climate in adolescents' gender and racial peer inclusion and attribution decisions

Adolescents use social identities and reasoning to make peer inclusion and attribution decisions. School climate plays a role in these decisions. Thus, this study analyzed how school racial climate and STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) classroom climate were associated with the choices of adolescents (N = 294; M_age = 15.72 years; 52.3 % female; 36.7 % White/European American, 32.9 % Black/African American, 11.2 % Latino/Hispanic [the most common racial/ethnic groups in the schools where data collection took place]) in two tasks: peer inclusion and attribution of ability. On the peer inclusion task, participants were more likely to choose a non-White peer for a STEM activity if they had lower perceptions of stereotyping at school, and they were more likely to choose a female peer if they were female. Participants were more likely to use reasoning based on personal characteristics when choosing a peer, but female participants who chose a female peer were more likely to use reasoning based on gender. On the attribution task, participants were more likely to choose a non-White peer if they perceived greater STEM connectedness, and they were more likely to choose a White or male peer if they had more positive relationships with their STEM teachers. Therefore, students' perceptions of school racial climate relate to adolescents' peer inclusion decisions, and their perceptions of STEM classroom climate relate to adolescents' ability attributions. Schools may need to focus on creating welcoming school and classroom environments as a way to promote equity in STEM.

Undergraduates’ pSTEM identity and motivation in relation to gender- and race-based perceived representation, stereotyped beliefs, and implicit associations

Women and underrepresented minoritized (URM) persons remain marginalized in physical science, technology, engineering, and math (pSTEM). Relative to non-URM men, URM women may experience a double disadvantage based on their gender and race whereby they observe few same-gender and few same-race role models in pSTEM while additionally internalizing stereotypes linking pSTEM with non-URM men. Our hypothesized model was partly supported in a sample of undergraduates ( N = 1,068; 68% women, 44% URM). First, perceiving same-gender or same-race pSTEM role models predicted lower explicit stereotypes among women and URM individuals regarding gender and race, respectively. Second, explicit and implicit associations linking pSTEM with men and White/Asian persons predicted (a) lower pSTEM identity among women and URM students and (b) higher identity among men and non-URM students. Finally, both implicit and explicit pSTEM identity positively predicted expectancy–value beliefs.

STEM-Gender Stereotypes: Associations With School Empowerment and School Engagement Among Italian and Nigerian Adolescents

While many sociocultural, contextual, biological, behavioral, and psychological variables may contribute to the widespread under-representation of girls and women in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) field, this study focused on STEM-gender stereotypes, school experiences, and adolescence as critical factors in driving students' interest and motivation in STEM. Based on this, the study (a) investigated differences by gender and national context (Italy vs. Nigeria) in adolescents' STEM-gender stereotypes, school empowerment, and school engagement in a preliminary step, and (b) simultaneously examined how adolescents' STEM-gender stereotypes were related to school empowerment and school engagement as well as to socioeconomic status (SES). These latter relations were considered within the context of the potential moderating role of gender and national context. Participants included 213 Italian adolescents (Mage = 13.91; 52.1% girls) and 214 Nigerian adolescents (Mage = 13.92; 60.3% girls), who completed measures of school empowerment and engagement, STEM-gender stereotypes, and SES. A multivariate analysis of covariance showed that Nigerian girls and boys reported significantly higher levels of school empowerment, school engagement, and STEM-gender stereotypes than their Italian peers. Moreover, regardless of the national context, boys scored significantly higher on school empowerment and STEM-gender stereotypes than girls. Furthermore, a multiple-group path analysis revealed how higher school empowerment was related to lower STEM-gender stereotypes in both Italian and Nigerian girls' groups, while higher school engagement was associated with lower STEM-gender stereotypes only in the Nigerian groups. Regardless of gender and nationality, higher SES was linked to lower STEM-gender stereotypes. These findings particularly suggest that school empowerment and school engagement can be relevant dimensions to be studied and to develop strategies to counteract STEM-gender stereotypes in adolescence. Nonetheless, gender and national context are key factors to be considered. Limitations, strengths, future research, and educational implications are discussed.

Stability and changes in high school students' STEM career expectations: Variability based on STEM support and parent education

INTRODUCTION

Why do some students maintain their career expectations in STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics), whereas others change their expectations? Using situated expectancy-value and social cognitive career theories, we sought to investigate the extent to which STEM support predicted changes in students' STEM career expectations during high school, and if these processes varied by whether the student had college educated or noncollege educated parents.

METHODS

Using the nationally representative data set of the High School Longitudinal Study, we investigated the predictors of changes in US students' STEM career expectations from 9th to 11th grade (n = 13,100, 54% noncollege educated parents, 51% girls, 55% White, 21% Latinx, 12% Black).

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Students with noncollege educated parents were significantly more likely to change from STEM to non-STEM career expectations by 11th grade or to have stable non-STEM career expectations (compared to having stable STEM expectations or changing from non-STEM to STEM expectations). Additionally, students with noncollege educated parents were less likely to receive STEM support from parents and attend extracurricular activities compared to students with college educated parents. However, when examining the predictors among students with noncollege educated parents, students were more likely to maintain their expectations for a STEM career from 9th to 11th grade (compared to switching to a non-STEM career) if they had parental STEM support. Additionally, all students regardless of parents' level of education were more likely to maintain their expectations for a STEM career (vs. switching to a non-STEM career) through high school if they received teacher STEM support. Furthermore, students were more likely to develop STEM career expectations (vs. maintaining non-STEM career expectations) if they had parent STEM support. These findings highlight how parent and teacher STEM support may bolster STEM career expectations, particularly among students with noncollege educated parents.

The acquisition of the gender-brilliance stereotype: Age trajectory, relation to parents' stereotypes, and intersections with race/ethnicity

Past research has explored children's gender stereotypes about specific intellectual domains, such as mathematics and science, but less is known about the acquisition of domain‐general stereotypes about the intellectual abilities of women and men. During 2017 and 2018, the authors administered Implicit Association Tests to Chinese Singaporean adults and 8‐ to 12‐year‐olds (N = 731; 58% female) to examine the gender stereotype that portrays exceptional intellectual ability (e.g., genius, brilliance) as a male attribute. This gender‐brilliance stereotype was present among adults and children and for both Chinese and White stereotype targets. It also was stronger among older children and among children whose parents also showed it. This early‐emerging stereotype may be an obstacle to gender equity in many prestigious employment sectors.

Exploring the Nature of Teachers' Math-Gender Stereotypes: The Math-Gender Misconception Questionnaire

Stereotypes of girls having weaker mathematical abilities than boys (math-gender stereotypes) are one factor reducing women's representation in mathematics. Teachers, as powerful socializers, often hold math-gender stereotypes. Reducing math-gender stereotypes in (student) teachers thus may foster women's representation in mathematics. Yet knowing the stereotypes' underlying assumptions is crucial to reducing it. Do math-gender stereotypes reflect elaborate, disproven theories about gender differences in math, meaning math-gender misconceptions? And if so, which math-gender misconceptions are behind math-gender stereotypes? This is the focus of the present research. The relevant literature implies the existence of three distinct misconceptions: (1) empathizing-systemizing ("As girls think rather empathically and boys think rather systematically, boys are on average more talented in math than girls"), (2) girls' compensation ("To achieve equally good grades in mathematics, boys have to make less effort because they are more talented than girls are"), and (3) girls' non-compensability ("Despite their on average stronger effort, girls are normally less proficient in math than boys"). We assessed these misconceptions in a student teacher sample (N = 303) using our newly developed Math-Gender Misconceptions Questionnaire. Our results offer support for the expected three-factor structure of math-gender misconceptions. All three math-gender misconceptions showed good to acceptable scale reliabilities. On average, preservice teachers did not hold (strong) math-gender misconceptions. But a subgroup of 48.2% of preservice teachers held at least one of the three misconceptions. The empathizing-systemizing misconception was the most prevalent (32.0%) among the three misconceptions. Descriptively, endorsing the math-gender stereotype correlated most strongly with the empathizing-systemizing (r = 0.43) and the girls' compensation misconception (r = 0.44). This may indicate that especially these two misconceptions partly underlie math-gender stereotypes. As a consequence, refutation instructions designed to reduce these misconceptions may be a promising method to weaken math-gender stereotypes. Further research is needed to investigate to what degree reducing the present misconceptions is related to reducing math-gender stereotypes. Hence, this study is the first one of a planned series of studies on the relation between math-gender misconceptions and math-gender stereotypes.

Older women: How do they feel while driving and what about the effects of age-and-gender stereotype threat?

Older female drivers could be considered victims of negative stereotypes for two reasons-being a woman and belonging to the older category-but there are no studies specifically in this double context. Two psychosocial questionnaires were created, one assessing the perception of driving abilities in different contexts (PDADC); the second, the perception of the attributes of driving (PAD) with a box for the activation of the stereotype threat. A population of 98 women, aged 65 years or older, comprised the experimental and control groups (quasi-experimental design). This study provides knowledge about the driving feelings of this population who appears, globally, as comfortable at the wheel and "immune" to stereotyping.

Measuring Stereotype Threat at Math and Language Arts in Secondary School: Validation of a Questionnaire

A stereotype threat arises when a negative stereotype about group to which an individual belongs is activated. It affects the achievement and interest of students in a particular academic domain, e.g., girls at math or boys at language arts. Hence, it is important to assess the level of stereotype threat at school (STaS) in order to identify the vulnerability of students to its negative consequences. This study devised and validated two parallel versions of the STaS scale: girls in mathematics and boys in language arts in a nationally representative sample of Polish secondary school students (N = 1,241; 13–16 years). The results of a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in a complex sample approach showed one general factor. Furthermore, a multiple-group CFA confirmed metric invariance and partial scalar invariance. The variances for boys and girls were equal. This suggests that the construct of stereotype threat is similarly conceptualized by both genders despite being in different domains. Finally, the comparison of means of latent variables revealed a higher level of stereotype threat among boys in the language domain than girls in mathematics. Possible theoretical and practical implications are discussed.