Determination of the prevalence of trypanosome species in cattle from Monduli district, northern Tanzania, by loop mediated isothermal amplification

Healthcare Management of Human African Trypanosomiasis Cases in the Eastern, Muchinga and Lusaka Provinces of Zambia

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a neglected tropical disease that has not received much attention in Zambia and most of the countries in which it occurs. In this study, we assessed the adequacy of the healthcare delivery system in diagnosis and management of rHAT cases, the environmental factors associated with transmission, the population at risk and the geographical location of rHAT cases. Structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted among the affected communities and health workers. The study identified 64 cases of rHAT, of which 26 were identified through active surveillance and 38 through passive surveillance. We identified a significant association between knowledge of the vector for rHAT and knowledge of rHAT transmission (p < 0.028). In all four districts, late or poor diagnosis occurred due to a lack of qualified laboratory technicians and diagnostic equipment. This study reveals that the current Zambian healthcare system is not able to adequately handle rHAT cases. Targeted policies to improve staff training in rHAT disease detection and management are needed to ensure that sustainable elimination of this public health problem is achieved in line with global targets.

Molecular Identification of Trypanosome Diversity in Domestic Animals Reveals the Presence of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Historical Foci of Human African Trypanosomiasis in Gabon

Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) is an infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the Trypanosoma genus. In sub-Saharan Africa, there is a significant threat as many people are at risk of infection. Despite this, HAT is classified as a neglected tropical disease. Over the last few years, several studies have reported the existence of a wide diversity of trypanosome species circulating in African animals. Thus, domestic and wild animals could be reservoirs of potentially dangerous trypanosomes for human populations. However, very little is known about the role of domestic animals in maintaining the transmission cycle of human trypanosomes in central Africa, especially in Gabon, where serious cases of infection are recorded each year, sometimes leading to hospitalization or death of patients. Komo-Mondah, located within Estuaries (Gabonese province), stays the most active HAT disease focus in Gabon, with a mean of 20 cases per year. In this study, we evaluated the diversity and prevalence of trypanosomes circulating in domestic animals using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique. We found that 19.34% (53/274) of the domestic animals we studied were infected with trypanosomes. The infection rates varied among taxa, with 23.21% (13/56) of dogs, 16.10% (19/118) of goats, and 21.00% (21/100) of sheep infected. In addition, we have observed a global mixed rate of infections of 20.75% (11/53) among infected individuals. Molecular analyses revealed that at least six Trypanosome species circulate in domestic animals in Gabon (T. congolense, T. simiae, T. simiae Tsavo, T. theileri, T. vivax, T. brucei (including T. brucei brucei, and T. brucei gambiense)). In conclusion, our study showed that domestic animals constitute important potential reservoirs for trypanosome parasites, including T. brucei gambiense, which is responsible for HAT.

Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of African Animal Trypanosomiasis in Cattle in Lambwe, Kenya

Background

African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) affects livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to determine cattle AAT's prevalence and associated risk factors in Lambwe Valley, Kenya.

Methods

In a cross-sectional survey, livestock owners were recruited from four villages of Lambwe in Homa Bay, Kenya. Blood samples were collected from the jugular veins of cattle, and buffy coat smears were examined under a microscope. Parasites were further detected using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Using a semistructured questionnaire, livestock owners were interviewed on their knowledge of AAT and control practices. Chi-square and multilevel models were used for the analysis.

Results

The overall prevalence was 15.63% (71/454). Trypanosoma vivax 10.31% and T. congolense Savannah 6.01% were the common species and subspecies. A total of 61 livestock keepers were involved in the study. Of these, 91.80% (56/61) knew AAT, and 90.16% (55/61) could describe the symptoms well and knew tsetse fly bite as transmission mode. Self-treatment (54.09%; 33/61) was common, with up to 50.00% of the farmers using drugs frequently. Isometamidium (72.13%; 44/61) and diminazene (54.09%; 33/61) were drugs frequently used. Although 16.39% (10/61) of the farmers claimed to use chemoprophylactic treatment, 6/10 did not use the right drugs. Animals (92.1%; 58/63) with clinical signs had positive infections. Villages closer to the national park recorded a higher prevalence. Infections were higher in cattle owned by those self-treating (27.23%; 58/213), those using drug treatment without vector control (27.62%; 50/181), those using single-drug therapy, and those practicing communal grazing (20.00%; 59/295). Clinical signs strongly associate with positive infections under multilevel modeling.

Conclusion

Cattle trypanosomiasis is prevalent in the Lambwe region of Kenya. This is influenced by inappropriate control practices, communal grazing, and the proximity of farms to the national park. In addition, clinical signs of the disease have a strong association with infections.

Epidemiology of tick-borne pathogens of cattle and tick control practices among mixed farming and pastoral communities in Gairo and Monduli districts, Tanzania

Tick-borne diseases including East Coast fever, anaplasmosis and babesiosis constitute a major constraint to improving livestock production worldwide, including Tanzania. Determination of the prevalence and factors associated with the occurrence of pathogens in cattle is important for informed decision making on the control and prevention of these diseases. However, little is known about the epidemiology of these pathogens in cattle in some regions of Tanzania. Therefore, this study aimed at establishing the prevalence of Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bigemina, Babesia bovis and Theileria parva in cattle, determine the risk factors associated with infection with these pathogens and also to assess tick control practices in Gairo and Monduli districts of Tanzania. Out of the 520 cattle sampled, the majority (82.9%) were infested with ticks of different species, predominated by Rhipicephalus decoloratus (42.7%), Amblyomma variegatum (31.3%), Rhipicephalus pulchellus (23.1%) and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (17.7%). Other ticks that were found on cattle included Rhipicephalus microplus (15.8%), Amblyomma gema (13.8%), Rhipicephalus evertsi (12.9%), Amblyomma lepidum (8.1%), Hyalomma truncatum (2.9%) and Hyalomma albiparmatum (2.1%). On microscopy 23 (4.4%) of 520 cattle were positive for hemoparasites. Of the 23 positive cattle, 13 (2.5%), 6 (1.2%) and 3 (0.6%) were monolithically infected with A. marginale, T. parva, and B. bovis respectively, while one (0.2% %) had co-infections of T. parva and A. marginale. The number of positive cattle increased to 184 (35.4%), when they were subjected to detection with PCR. This included the 23 samples that were positive on microscopy. Based on PCR, the overall prevalence of the pathogens from the two districts was 11.5%, 11.2%, 6.2% and 2.5% for B. bigemina, A. marginale, T. parva and B. bovis, respectively. Hemoparasite co-infection occurred in 6.9% of the cattle examined. The prevalence of co-infections was 2.7%, 4%, and 0.02% for T. parva/A. marginale, B. bigemina/A. marginale and B. bigemina/A. marginale/T. parva, respectively. Cattle with co-infections had significantly lower (p < 0.005) mean packed cell volume as compared to cattle with mono-infections. The majority (96%) of cattle examined were subjected to different methods of tick control. A number of risk factors were shown to be associated with the occurrence of tick-borne pathogens in cattle. Higher prevalence of A. marginale may be due to its wide range of biological and mechanical transmission. These findings could be used to strengthen future control programs for ticks and tick-borne diseases in the study areas.

Policy and Linkages in the Application of a One Health System for Reporting and Controlling African Trypanosomiasis and Other Zoonotic Diseases in Zambia

The capacity to detect, control and manage emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases in Africa has been limited by a lack of utilisation of available reporting structures and policies to support programmes at national and local levels. This study explored the impact of the Zambian government policies on animal and human disease reporting and management and on One Health opportunities. An in-depth review and analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the existing policies and reporting structures in the departments responsible for Veterinary Services, Health, and Wildlife, was conducted. According to our findings, sub-optimal implementation of existing policies related to the control of zoonotic diseases was impacting disease reporting, and reporting structures play an important role in effective and sustainable reporting of zoonotic diseases. Further, the study explored capacities and strategies in trypanosomiasis control as a case study that could prompt effective adoption of a One Health approach, and as such, the study suggests measures that could help to assess the performance of a One Health system in the control of African trypanosomiasis and other zoonotic diseases.

Follow-up of dairy cattle naturally infected by Trypanosoma vivax after treatment with isometamidium chloride

Trypanosoma vivax infections cause nonspecific clinical signs in cattle associated with aparasitemic intervals, making disease diagnosis a challenge. In Brazil, diminazene aceturate and isometamidium chloride (ISM) are available to treat bovine trypanosomosis. The objective of this study was to follow-up, by molecular and serological techniques, dairy cattle naturally infected by T. vivax after ISM treatment. Thirty cattle naturally infected with T. vivax received two applications of ISM, at a dosage of 1.0 mg/kg intramuscularly, on days 0 and 150. For T. vivax diagnosis, EDTA-blood and serum samples were evaluated on 0, 7, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, and 240 days after treatment PCR, Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and ELISA. Animals with persistent detection of T. vivax DNA by both PCR and LAMP were found and continuous detection of anti-T. vivax IgG antibodies by ELISA, suggesting the presence of T. vivax resistance to ISM. The combination of LAMP and ELISA tests can prevent misdiagnosis of the parasite clearance in treated cattle, contributing to better disease control. This is the first experiment that demonstrates the persistence infection of T. vivax under ISM treatment in a natural infected herd and evidence of ISM chemotherapy-resistant T. vivax in Brazil.

Global distribution, host range and prevalence of Trypanosoma vivax: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma vivax is one of the diseases threatening the health and productivity of livestock in Africa and Latin America. Trypanosoma vivax is mainly transmitted by tsetse flies; however, the parasite has also acquired the ability to be transmitted mechanically by hematophagous dipterans. Understanding its distribution, host range and prevalence is a key step in local and global efforts to control the disease.

METHODS

The study was conducted according to the methodological recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist. A systematic literature search was conducted on three search engines, namely PubMed, Scopus and CAB Direct, to identify all publications reporting natural infection of T. vivax across the world. All the three search engines were screened using the search term Trypanosoma vivax without time and language restrictions. Publications on T. vivax that met our inclusion criteria were considered for systematic review and meta-analysis.

RESULT

The study provides a global database of T. vivax, consisting of 899 records from 245 peer-reviewed articles in 41 countries. A total of 232, 6277 tests were performed on 97 different mammalian hosts, including a wide range of wild animals. Natural infections of T. vivax were recorded in 39 different African and Latin American countries and 47 mammalian host species. All the 245 articles were included into the qualitative analysis, while information from 186 cross-sectional studies was used in the quantitative analysis mainly to estimate the pooled prevalence. Pooled prevalence estimates of T. vivax in domestic buffalo, cattle, dog, dromedary camel, equine, pig, small ruminant and wild animals were 30.6%, 6.4%, 2.6%, 8.4%, 3.7%, 5.5%, 3.8% and 12.9%, respectively. Stratified according to the diagnostic method, the highest pooled prevalences were found with serological techniques in domesticated buffalo (57.6%) followed by equine (50.0%) and wild animals (49.3%).

CONCLUSION

The study provides a comprehensive dataset on the geographical distribution and host range of T. vivax and demonstrates the potential of this parasite to invade other countries out of Africa and Latin America.

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification as Point-of-Care Diagnosis for Neglected Parasitic Infections

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has placed twenty diseases into a group known as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), twelve of them being parasitic diseases: Chagas’ disease, cysticercosis/taeniasis, echinococcosis, food-borne trematodiasis, human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leishmaniasis, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis (river blindness), schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiasis (ascariasis, hookworm, trichuriasis), guinea-worm and scabies. Such diseases affect millions of people in developing countries where one of the main problems concerning the control of these diseases is diagnosis-based due to the most affected areas usually being far from laboratories having suitable infrastructure and/or being equipped with sophisticated equipment. Advances have been made during the last two decades regarding standardising and introducing techniques enabling diagnoses to be made in remote places, i.e., the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) technique. This technique’s advantages include being able to perform it using simple equipment, diagnosis made directly in the field, low cost of each test and the technique’s high specificity. Using this technique could thus contribute toward neglected parasite infection (NPI) control and eradication programmes. This review describes the advances made to date regarding LAMP tests, as it has been found that even though several studies have been conducted concerning most NPI, information is scarce for others.

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis in some African countries from 2000 to 2018

Bovine trypanosomiasis is a disease of cattle. In sub-Saharan Africa, the disease mean prevalence estimates are unknown in most endemic countries. We therefore performed a meta-analysis with the aim of estimating national mean prevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis in endemic countries across sub-Saharan Africa. Relevant articles reporting bovine trypanosomiasis prevalence were retrieved through systematic literature search and scanning of articles reference-lists. Eligibility criteria included that articles reported sample size, prevalence, and diagnostic technique adopted. Overall, data from 180 eligible articles from 19 countries satisfied the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis of prevalence data based on the random-effects model resulted in an overall mean prevalence of 15.10% (95% CI: 13.22-17.08). National prevalence estimates were generally high except those of Benin and Senegal where estimates ranked below 10.00%. Significant heterogeneity (I² = 98.75%. p = <0.0001) was noted between studies, and univariate meta-regression analysis identified choice of diagnostic method being major contributor to observed heterogeneity (R² = 36.37%); while country of study (R² = 9.57%) and sample size (R² = 3.47%) had marginal effect on heterogeneity. In spite of past and ongoing control activities, bovine trypanosomiasis remains highly prevalent in most endemic sub-Saharan African countries. Nevertheless, dearth of epidemiological data in some countries and the use of less sensitive diagnostic tools limit reliable estimation of the disease prevalence. Therefore, there is the need to intensify efforts in aspects of surveillance and increased application of molecular diagnostic tool(s) across endemic locations as this would raise the chances of achieving a near-accurate estimate of the disease prevalence which is the first step to attempting eradication.

A review of wildlife tourism and meta-analysis of parasitism in Africa's national parks and game reserves

The recent increase of parasitic diseases associated with wildlife tourism can be traced to human contact with wildlife and intense modification of wildlife habitat. The continental estimates of parasitic diseases among visited wildlife-tourists and mammalian wildlife present in conservation areas are lacking; therefore, a general review was necessary to provide insights into Africa's parasitic disease burden and transmission between humans and wildlife. A two-step analysis was conducted with searches in Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, Web of Science and Global Health. All diseases reported without prevalence were grouped and analysed as categorical data while meta-analysis of prevalence rates of parasitic diseases in wildlife from national parks and reserves in Africa was conducted. Only 4.7% of the tourist centres reported routine wildlife diagnosis for parasitic diseases. Disease intensity shows that cryptosporidiosis and seven other parasitic diseases were observed in both human and wildlife; however, no significant difference in intensity between human and wildlife hosts was observed. Schistosomiasis intensity reports showed a significant increase (P < 0.05) while entamoebiasis showed a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in humans as compared to wildlife. Visiting tourists were more infected with malaria, while wildlife was more infected with parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE). The meta-analysis of wildlife revealed the highest prevalence of PGE with mixed parasites and lowest prevalence of Giardia spp. at 99.9 and 5.7%, respectively. The zoonotic and socioeconomic impact of some of these parasites could pose a severe public threat to tourism. Pre- and post-travel clinical examinations are important for tourists while routine examination, treatment and rational surveillance are important for these animals to improve wildlife tourism.

Occurrence of trypanosome infections in cattle in relation to season, livestock movement and management practices of Maasai pastoralists in Northern Tanzania

African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) is a parasitic disease considered to be one of the greatest constraints to cattle production in Tanzania. There is insufficient information on seasonal occurrence of AAT and management practices in Monduli District of the Maasai Steppe ecosystem to guide and prioritize AAT control programs. A cross-sectional survey was undertaken in 10 randomly selected villages of Monduli District. Information on seasonal animal movements, including wildlife interaction, and AAT management practices was gathered using a standardized questionnaire with 130 pastoralists. Blood samples were collected from a total of 960 cattle, in wet and dry seasons. An entomological survey was also undertaken in the dry season. Polymerase chain reaction targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) was used for parasite identification in cattle blood and in tsetse flies. The overall apparent prevalence of AAT in cattle was 5.8% (95% CI of 4.1-8.3) and 4.2% (95% CI of 2.7-6.3) during wet and dry reasons, respectively. Trypanosoma vivax was the most common species identified in cattle. All tsetse flies (n = 426) collected were trapped in Esilalei village which is in close proximity to Lake Manyara National Park. Tsetse fly infection status was determined to be 7.0%; (CI 95% of 4.9-9.8%) with nearly 50% of infections due to T. congolense. All 130 cattle owners reported that they could easily recognize AAT and the majority (75%) identified the most prominent clinical signs. Nearly all owners (98.5%) identified that tsetse flies were responsible for AAT transmission. All cattle owners (100%) reported the use of trypanocides for AAT treatment, while 2.3% reported to also use herbal medicine. The trypanocides, Novidium® and Berenil®, were the most frequently reported commercial drugs and were used by 42% of cattle owners. Vector control by hand spraying was reported by the majority (90.8%) of cattle owners, while dipping and deployment of insecticide-impregnated targets were reported by few cattle owners (16.2% and 5.4%, respectively). The majority of cattle owners (83.1%) reported to move cattle away from home villages during the dry season with many migrating to areas in close proximity to wildlife parks. This study confirms the presence of circulating pathogenic trypanosomes in tsetse flies which continue to pose a threat to Maasai cattle. The seasonal movement of cattle during the dry season was associated with more clinical cases of cattle trypanosomosis. This study demonstrates the need to strengthen surveillance and control strategies for AAT.

Molecular prevalence of trypanosome infections in cattle and tsetse flies in the Maasai Steppe, northern Tanzania

Background

African trypanosomosis is a disease of public health and economic importance that poses a major threat to the livelihoods of people living in the Maasai Steppe, where there is a significant interaction between people, livestock and wildlife. The vulnerability of the Maasai people to the disease is enhanced by the interaction of their cattle, which act as vehicles for trypanosomes, and tsetse flies close to wildlife in protected areas. This study was aimed at identification of trypanosome infections circulating in cattle and tsetse flies in order to understand their distribution and prevalence in livestock/wildlife interface areas in the Maasai Steppe.

Methods

A total of 1002 cattle and 886 tsetse flies were sampled from June 2015 to February 2016 in five villages and PCR was conducted to amplify the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) from trypanosomes. All Trypanosoma brucei-positive samples were further tested for the presence of the serum resistance-associated (SRA) gene found in human-infective trypanosomes using the SRA-LAMP technique.

Results

The overall prevalence of trypanosome infections was 17.2% in cattle and 3.4% in tsetse flies. Using a nested PCR, prevalence and abundance of five trypanosome species, Trypanosoma vivax, T. brucei, T. simiae, T. theileri and T. congolense, were determined, which varied with season and location. The highest prevalence of the identified trypanosome species was recorded at the end of wet season with an exception of T. brucei which was high at the beginning of the wet season. No human-infective trypanosomes were detected in both cattle and tsetse fly DNA.

Conclusions

This study confirms that seasonality and location have a significant contribution to the prevalence of trypanosome species in both mammalian and vector hosts. These results are important for designing of community-wide vector and disease control interventions and planning of sustainable regimes for reduction of the burden of trypanosomosis in endemic pastoral areas, such as the Maasai Steppe in northern Tanzania.

Climate change and cattle vector-borne diseases: Use of participatory epidemiology to investigate experiences in pastoral communities in Northern Tanzania

Climate change is predicted to increase incidence of vector-borne diseases in humans, however, little is known about the impact of such diseases in livestock. In the absence of historical data with which to examine the inter-relation between climate and disease, participatory epidemiological (PE) methods were used with Maasai pastoralists of Monduli District, northern Tanzania to establish local observations on two major vector-borne diseases of cattle, namely East Coast fever (ECF) and African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT). Data collection involving gender segregated groups (10 men groups and 9 women groups) occurred in 10 randomly selected villages between November 2014 and March 2015. ECF and AAT were ranked amongst the top 5 most important cattle diseases with strong agreement across informant groups (Kendall's W=0.40 for men and 0.45 for women; p<0.01). Matrix scoring for both men and women groups confirmed that Masaai easily recognize these diseases. All groups associated ECF with the wet and cool dry seasons. AAT was more variable throughout the year, with more cases reported in the long dry season. Likewise, pastoralists reported differences in seasonal occurrence of disease vectors (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Glossina spp.) by village. Comparing 2014-1984, participant groups consistently reported declines in rainfall, vegetation cover and quality pasture, as well as increases in severe droughts. Experiences with ECF/AAT and vector abundance between these time periods was more variable across villages, and likely relates to changes in climate and animal management practices over the last 30 years. This baseline study is the first to document the inter-relation between climate and cattle vector-borne disease from the pastoralist perspective. Findings from this study reveal a complex interplay between human, animal and environmental factors, understanding of which is urgently required to devise approaches to mitigate effects of climate change in these vulnerable areas.

Prevalence and risk factors of bovine trypanosomosis in Kilwa district, Lindi region of southern Tanzania

African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) and human African trypanosomosis (HAT) are complex chronic, debilitating, emaciating and often fatal diseases of animals and humans, respectively. This cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with bovine trypanosomosis in tsetse-infested Kilwa district, Lindi region, southern Tanzania. Blood samples were collected from 420 cattle randomly selected from 86 herds from ten villages. A maximum of ten herds per village and at most six animals from each herd were selected for sampling. At the same time, a questionnaire was administered. Individual animal samples were analysed using microscopy and pooled sample at herd level were analysed by loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). A herd was considered positive if at least one animal in the herd was positive for AAT. A prevalence of 9.3% (95% CI: 2.9-14.9) was recorded for AAT by microscopy, mainly caused by Trypanosoma congolense (5.8%, 95% CI=0.9-10.7), Trypanosoma brucei species (5.8%, 95%, CI=0.9-10.7) and Trypanosoma vivax (3.5%, 95% CI=0-7.4). Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) recorded a heard prevalence of 41.9% (95% CI: 30.0-51.4%), mainly caused by T. congolense (30.2%, 95% CI: 20.5-39.9), T. brucei species (25.6%, 95% CI: 16.4-34.8) and T. vivax (20.9%, 95% CI: 12.3-29.7). Most of the cattle herds had mixed infections of these parasites. According to LAMP, Miteja and Matandu villages had the highest AAT herd prevalence of 57% (95% CI: 20.3-93.7) while Mavuji had the lowest prevalence of 14% (95% CI: 0-39.7). Data from the present study suggest that district of origin, grazing in game reserve, water source and form of watering point are risk factors associated with AAT in Kilwa district, southern Tanzania. Continuous surveillance and monitoring of AAT using more sensitive are recommended.

The role of domestic animals in the epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis in Ngorongoro conservation area, Tanzania

Background

Trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the trypanosome parasite and transmitted by the tsetse fly vector. In Sub-saharan Africa, both the human and animal variants of the disease are a great obstacle towards agriculture, development, and health. In order to better understand and therefore combat Trypanosomiasis, characterizing disease hotspots across species is critical.

Methods

In this study, 193 samples from cattle, sheep, and goats were collected from eight sites. Samples were taken from animals belonging mostly to Maasai herdsmen in the Ngorongoro Crater Conservation Area (NCA) and analysed for the presence of trypanosomiasis infection using PCR techniques. Those that tested positive for T. brucei parasite were further tested using SRA LAMP technique to check for T. brucei rhodesiense, the human infective subspecies of parasite.

Results

Our study found a high incidence of Trypanosoma brucei infections across species. Of animals tested, 47 % of cattle, 91.7 % of sheep, and 60.8 % of goats were infected. Most of the infections were of the T. brucei species. We also identified sheep and goats as carriers of the T. brucei rhodesiense subspecies, which causes acute human trypanosomiasis.

Conclusions

Together, these results point toward the need for stricter control strategies in the area to prevent disease outbreak.