Short- and long-term efficacy of levamisole in children with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome

Optimizing the corticosteroid dose in steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome

The use of corticosteroids in the treatment of steroid-sensitive nephrotic (SSNS) syndrome in children has evolved surprisingly slowly since the ISKDC consensus over 50 years ago. From a move towards longer courses of corticosteroid to treat the first episode in the 1990s and 2000s, more recent large, well-designed randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have unequivocally shown no benefit from an extended course, although doubt remains whether this applies across all age groups. With regard to prevention of relapses, daily ultra-low-dose prednisolone has recently been shown to be more effective than low-dose alternate-day prednisolone. Daily low-dose prednisolone for a week at the time of acute viral infection seems to be effective in the prevention of relapses but the results of a larger RCT are awaited. Recently, corticosteroid dosing to treat relapses has been questioned, with data suggesting lower doses may be as effective. The need for large RCTs to address the question of whether corticosteroid doses can be reduced was the conclusion of the authors of the recent corticosteroid therapy for nephrotic syndrome in children Cochrane update. This review summarizes development in thinking on corticosteroid use in SSNS and makes suggestions for areas that merit further scrutiny.

Development and Validation of a Highly Sensitive Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Technique to Determine Levamisole in Plasma and Saliva

BACKGROUND

Levamisole is used as a steroid-sparing drug for the treatment of frequently relapsing or steroid-dependent idiopathic nephrotic syndrome in children. As part of a large multicentre randomized controlled trial with levamisole, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters of levamisole in children with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome were investigated, as well as the feasibility of using saliva as an alternative and patient-friendly matrix for determining levamisole concentrations. In this study, the authors presented the development and validation of a highly sensitive method for determining levamisole in plasma and saliva using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

METHODS

In 100 μL samples, proteins were precipitated with 750 μL acetonitrile/methanol 420:80 (v/v) with levamisole-D5 as an internal standard. Calibration standards were prepared over a range of 0.1 ng/mL-50 ng/mL. To determine ultrafiltration efficiency, the ultrafiltrate was obtained by centrifuging blank plasma samples over the filter. Both filtered and nonfiltered samples were analyzed.

RESULTS

For plasma, accuracy and within-run and between-run imprecision were between 95.0% and 100% and <14.5%, respectively, and for saliva, between 100.9% and 107.5%, and <13.3%. No significant matrix effects were observed. Samples were stable at benchtop for 24 hours and -80°C, for at least 14 months (stability experiments ongoing). The ultrafiltration efficiency of unbound concentrations in plasma was lower than 85% (58.9%) but stable, and, therefore, the observed concentration should be corrected.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on observations, the developed measure can determine levamisole concentrations in participant saliva samples.

Efficacy of Levamisole in children with Frequent Relapsing and Steroid Dependent Nephrotic Syndrome at Tertiary Care Center-Karachi

Objectives:

To determine the effectiveness of levamisole in maintaining remission of proteinuria in children with frequent relapsing and steroid dependent nephrotic syndrome (FR/SDNS).

Methods:

This observational study on 81 children with FR /SDNS was carried out from June 2007 - June 2017 at The Kidney Center-Postgraduate Training Institute, Karachi-Pakistan. Levamisole (leva) along with low dose prednisolone on alternate day (AD) was used after induction of remission with daily oral prednisolone in children with FR/ SDNS for 6-36 months. Patients with steroid resistance were excluded. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Results:

Eighty-one patients with FR (66) or SD (15) received levamisole treatment. Mean age at diagnosis was 3.72 ±2.33 years. Levamisole was used on AD in 59.25% and daily in 40.74% of cases. Twenty-four could not complete six months and were excluded, 57 patients completed treatment duration of 15.68±9.93 months and 51 post-leva follow-up of 11.70±11.23 months. Mean leva-dose was 1.73±0.67 mg/kg/ patient. Mean cumulative prednisolone dose per patient before, on-leva and post-leva was 3389.81±2785.22, 2471.97±2024.98 and 661.37± 905.37 mg respectively. Mean relapse rate per year before leva, on -leva and post -leva was 3.30 ±0.50,0.98± 1.1and 0.79±1.27 respectively. Levamisole was effective in 90% of patients. During post-leva follow up, 76.4% patients, maintained remission, whereas 23.5% behaved as FR/SD and require further immunosuppressive therapy.

Conclusions:

Levamisole was effective in maintaining remission in 90% while on treatment, whereas it maintained remission after discontinuation in 76.4% cases. Levamisole may be used as first steroid sparing agent before other immunosuppressive therapies in children with FR/SDNS. Further studies are required for optimal duration and dosage schedule.

Prevention of relapses with levamisole as adjuvant therapy in children with a first episode of idiopathic nephrotic syndrome: study protocol for a double blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial (the LEARNS study)

INTRODUCTION

Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS) is characterised by a high relapse rate up to 80% after initial response to standard therapy with corticosteroids. Steroid toxicity is common and causes a great burden of disease that negatively influences the health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Recently, studies have shown that levamisole, an anthelminthic drug, significantly improves relapse-free survival in children with frequent relapses or steroid dependency. Compared with other steroid-sparing drugs, levamisole has relatively few side effects. We hypothesise that adding levamisole to standard therapy with corticosteroids in children with a first episode of INS will prevent relapses, decrease cumulative dosage of steroids used and improve HRQoL. This paper presents the study protocol for the LEARNS study (LEvamisole as Adjuvant therapy to Reduce relapses of Nephrotic Syndrome).

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

An international, double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised trial will be conducted in 20 participating hospitals in the Netherlands and Belgium. Participants (n=92) with a first episode of INS, aged 2-16 years, who achieve remission after 4 weeks of oral prednisolone will be randomly assigned (1:1) to receive either levamisole 2.5 mg/kg alternate day or placebo added to prednisolone (18-week tapering schedule) for a total of 24 weeks. Follow-up will be until 2 years after first presentation. Additionally, parents and/or children will fill out five HRQoL questionnaires. Primary outcome of the LEARNS study is occurrence of relapses within 12 months after first presentation. Secondary outcomes include time to first relapse, cumulative steroid dose after 2 years, safety parameters and quality of life scores.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The trial was approved by the Medical Ethical Committee. Results of the study will be published in a peer-reviewed journal.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NL6826, 2017-001025-41.

Immunosuppressive therapy in children with primary nephrotic syndrome: single center experience, Karachi, Pakistan

Background

Majority of children with nephrotic syndrome are steroid sensitive, but treatment of difficult to treat nephrotic (frequent relapsing, steroid dependent and steroid resistant) syndrome is challenging. Low dose steroid, levamisole, cyclophosphamide (CPM), mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) are the common options of treatment.

Objective of the study was to determine the response to steroid and alternative immunosuppressive agents (ISAs) in children with difficult nephrotic syndrome (DNS).

Methods

This is a retrospective cohort study of 176 children with DNS, managed over 12 years at The Kidney Center-Postgraduate Training Institute, Karachi- Pakistan from 2005 to 2017.

Initial episode was treated with daily oral prednisolone (OP) for 4–8 weeks followed by alternate day OP for 12–24 weeks. Subsequently low dose OP, levamisole (Leva)and cyclophosphamide was used for frequent relapsing (FR)/ steroid dependent (SD). All with initial steroid resistance and non- responders to leva and or cyclophosphamide were biopsied and treated with CNIs and MMF. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Results

There were 130(73.86%) children with FR/SD and 46(26.13%) with SRNS. All children with SR (46) and 86 with FR/SD were biopsied. Minimal change disease (60.60%) and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS 23%) were the two common lesions. Majority (73.86%) received single OP whereas divided doses were administered in 26.13% cases. Daily OP was used for 4, 6 and 8 weeks in 61.36,28.4 and10.22% respectively. Steroids were tapered over 3 (31.81%),4 (52.27%) and 6 months (15.90%). Levamisole, CPM, cyclosporin (CS) and MMF were used sequentially in 45, 54.23, 50 and 20% respectively. Combination of MMF and CS was used in 11.29% of cases.

Levamisole was effective in 80%, CPM induced complete remission (CR, 57.77%) or partial remission (PR, 22.22%), CS induced CR 46.59% and PR 39.77%. MMF showed PR and CR 69 and 12.82% respectively. At last follow up, 46% were maintaining remission while off treatment, whereas 35% are maintaining remission on therapy,10.23% lost- to-follow, 5.68% progressed to chronic kidney disease. Mortality was 2.84% and it was due to infection and uremia.

Conclusion

Majority had steroid sensitive MCD. Levamisole and cyclophosphamide were effective in maintaining remission in FR/ SD. FSGS was responsible for resistance to steroid and alternative ISAs. Cyclosporin was effective in inducing remission in SRNS. Mortality was less than 3%.

Levamisole in Children with Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome: Clinical Efficacy and Pathophysiological Aspects

Steroid sensitive nephrotic syndrome is one of the most common pediatric glomerular diseases. Unfortunately, it follows a relapsing and remitting course in the majority of cases, with 50% of all cases relapsing once or even more often. Most children with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome respond initially to steroid therapy, nevertheless repeated courses for patients with relapses induce significant steroid toxicity. Patients with frequent relapses or steroid dependency thus require alternative treatment, such as cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, levamisole, or rituximab. To reduce the relapse rate, several drugs have been used. Among these, levamisole has been considered the least toxic and least expensive therapy. Several randomized controlled trials (RCT) showed that levamisole is effective in reducing the relapse risk in steroid sensitive forms of nephrotic syndrome with a low frequency of side effects. Levamisole is a synthetic imidazothiazole derivative with immune-modulatory properties. In this article, we review recent data from randomized trials and observational studies to assess the efficacy of levamisole in frequently relapsing nephrotic syndrome and steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome.

Efficacy and safety of mycophenolate mofetil versus levamisole in frequently relapsing nephrotic syndrome: an open-label randomized controlled trial

Both levamisole and mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) prevent relapses in patients with frequently relapsing nephrotic syndrome; however, their efficacy has not been compared prospectively. This single-center, randomized, open-label trial enrolled 149 children ages 6-18 years with frequently relapsing or steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome. Participants were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to receive therapy with MMF (750-1000 mg/m² daily) or levamisole (2-2.5 mg/kg on alternate days) for 1 year; prednisolone was discontinued by 2-3 months. In intention-to-treat analyses, the frequency of relapse was similar between participants treated with MMF and levamisole (mean difference -0.29 relapses/patient-year; 95% confidence interval -0.65, 0.08). Relapse rates declined to almost one-third of baseline for both treatment groups. Therapy with MMF was not superior to levamisole in terms of the proportions of participants with sustained remission (40.8% vs. 34.2%), frequent relapses (14.5% vs. 16.4%), or treatment failure, a composite outcome of frequent relapses, steroid resistance, or significant steroid toxicity (15.8% vs. 20.6%). These outcomes were also similar in time to event analyses. Changes in anthropometry and blood pressure were similar between the groups, and the rates of adverse effects were low in both groups. Flow cytometry in 32 participants demonstrated similar proportions of B cells and CD4+, CD8+, T helper (Th)1, Th2, Th17, and T regulatory (Treg) cells during follow-up. Therapy with MMF was not superior to levamisole in the frequency of relapses, likelihood of sustained remission or corticosteroid sparing in children with frequently relapsing or steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome. Registration CTRI/2012/02/002394.

A randomized clinical trial indicates that levamisole increases the time to relapse in children with steroid-sensitive idiopathic nephrotic syndrome

Levamisole has been considered the least toxic and least expensive steroid-sparing drug for preventing relapses of steroid-sensitive idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (SSINS). However, evidence for this is limited as previous randomized clinical trials were found to have methodological limitations. Therefore, we conducted an international multicenter, placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized clinical trial to reassess its usefulness in prevention of relapses in children with SSINS. The efficacy and safety of one year of levamisole treatment in children with SSINS and frequent relapses were evaluated. The primary analysis cohort consisted of 99 patients from 6 countries. Between 100 days and 12 months after the start of study medication, the time to relapse (primary endpoint) was significantly increased in the levamisole compared to the placebo group (hazard ratio 0.22 [95% confidence interval 0.11-0.43]). Significantly, after 12 months of treatment, six percent of placebo patients versus 26 percent of levamisole patients were still in remission. During this period, the most frequent serious adverse event (four of 50 patients) possibly related to levamisole was asymptomatic moderate neutropenia, which was reversible spontaneously or after treatment discontinuation. Thus, in children with SSINS and frequent relapses, levamisole prolonged the time to relapse and also prevented recurrence during one year of treatment compared to prednisone alone. However, regular blood controls are necessary for safety issues.

Levamisole therapy in children with frequently relapsing and steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome: a single-center experience

Introduction

Numerous studies suggest that levamisole, an antihelmintic agent with an immunomodulatory effect, reduces the number of relapses in children with frequently relapsing and steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome (FRNS/SDNS). The aim of the study was to present a single center’s experience in treatment of FRNS and SDNS with levamisole.

Material and methods

Among 72 children with FRNS/SDNS treated in our department with levamisole in the years 1984-2011 we studied in detail 53 patients (mean age: 6.5 ±3.0 years), in whom the medication was administered for at least 6 months. In these 53 patients we evaluated: the course of the disease before levamisole, the renal biopsy result, medications used, prednisone dose on levamisole initiation, duration of levamisole treatment, time to first relapse and number of relapses on levamisole, and levamisole side effects.

Results

The duration of nephrotic syndrome was 3.4 ±2.9 years, and the number of relapses before levamisole treatment was 6.0 ±3.4. The dose of prednisone on initiation of levamisole treatment was 1.2 ±0.6 mg/kg/24 h, and the duration of levamisole treatment was 15.0 ±7.3 months. During levamisole treatment proteinuria relapsed in 34/53 (64.2%) children, and the time to first relapse was 8.8 ±8.1 months. During levamisole therapy relapses of the disease decreased significantly (2.7 ±2.0 vs. 1.8 ±2.1 relapses/year, p = 0.02). Time to first relapse correlated with total number of relapses (R = –0.59, p < 0.001) and number of relapses in one year during levamisole treatment (R = –0.60, p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Levamisole is effective in reducing the number of relapses in children with frequently relapsing and steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome. Early relapse of proteinuria on levamisole treatment in children with FRNS/SDNS suggests low efficacy of further treatment.

Levamisole in steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome: usefulness in adult patients and laboratory insights into mechanisms of action via direct action on the kidney podocyte

Minimal change nephropathy (MCN) is the third most common cause of primary nephrotic syndrome in adults. Most patients with MCN respond to corticosteroid therapy, but relapse is common. In children, steroid-dependent patients are often given alternative agents to spare the use of steroids and to avoid the cumulative steroid toxicity. In this respect, levamisole has shown promise due to its ability to effectively maintain remission in children with steroid-sensitive or steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome. Despite clinical effectiveness, there is a complete lack of molecular evidence to explain its mode of action and there are no published reports on the use of this compound in adult patients. We studied the effectiveness of levamisole in a small cohort of adult patients and also tested the hypothesis that levamisole's mode of action is attributable to its direct effects on podocytes. In the clinic, we demonstrate that in our adult patients, cohort levamisole is generally well tolerated and clinically useful. Using conditionally immortalized human podocytes, we show that levamisole is able to induce expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and to activate GR signalling. Furthermore, levamisole is able to protect against podocyte injury in a puromycin aminonucleoside (PAN)-treated cell model. In this model the effects of levamisole are blocked by the GR antagonist mifepristone (RU486), suggesting that GR signalling is a critical target of levamisole's action. These results indicate that levamisole is effective in nephrotic syndrome in adults, as well as in children, and point to molecular mechanisms for this drug's actions in podocyte diseases.