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Domańska-Blicharz K, Lisowska A, Opolska J, Pikuła A, Sajewicz-Krukowska J. Molecular Epidemiology of Turkey Coronaviruses in Poland. Viruses 2022; 14:v14051023. [PMID: 35632765 PMCID: PMC9148103 DOI: 10.3390/v14051023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The only knowledge of the molecular structure of European turkey coronaviruses (TCoVs) comes from France. These viruses have a quite distinct S gene from North American isolates. The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of TCoV strains in a Polish turkey farm during a twelve-year period, between 2008 and 2019, and to characterize their full-length S gene. Out of the 648 flocks tested, 65 (10.0%, 95% CI: 7.9–12.6) were positive for TCoV and 16 of them were molecularly characterized. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these strains belonged to two clusters, one formed by the early isolates identified at the beginning of the TCoV monitoring (from 2009 to 2010), and the other, which was formed by more recent strains from 2014 to 2019. Our analysis of the changes observed in the deduced amino acids of the S1 protein suggests the existence of three variable regions. Moreover, although the selection pressure analysis showed that the TCoV strains were evolving under negative selection, some sites of the S1 subunit were positively selected, and most of them were located within the proposed variable regions. Our sequence analysis also showed one TCoV strain had recombined with another one in the S1 gene. The presented investigation on the molecular feature of the S gene of TCoVs circulating in the turkey population in Poland contributes interesting data to the current state of knowledge.
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Courtillon C, Briand FX, Allée C, Contrant M, Beven V, Lucas P, Blanchard Y, Mouchel S, Eterradossi N, Delforterie Y, Grasland B, Brown P. Description of the first isolates of guinea fowl corona and picornaviruses obtained from a case of guinea fowl fulminating enteritis. Avian Pathol 2021; 50:507-521. [PMID: 34545751 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2021.1976725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Guinea fowl fulminating enteritis has been reported in France since the 1970s. In 2014, a coronavirus was identified and appeared as a possible viral pathogen involved in the disease. In the present study, intestinal content from a guinea fowl involved in a new case of the disease in 2017 was analysed by deep sequencing, revealing the presence of a guinea fowl coronavirus (GfCoV) and a picornavirus (GfPic). Serial passage assays into the intra-amniotic cavity of 13-day-old specific pathogen-free chicken eggs and 20-day-old conventional guinea fowl eggs were attempted. In chicken eggs, isolation assays failed, but in guinea fowl eggs, both viruses were successfully obtained. Furthermore, two GfCoV and two GfPic isolates were obtained from the same bird but from different sections of its intestines. This shows that using eggs of the same species, in which the virus has been detected, can be the key for successful isolation. The consensus sequence of the full-length genomes of both GfCoV isolates was highly similar, and correlated to those previously described in terms of genome organization, ORF length and phylogenetic clustering. According to full-length genome analysis and the structure of the Internal Ribosome Entry Site, both GfPic isolates belong to the Anativirus genus and specifically the species Anativirus B. The availability of the first isolates of GfCoV and GfPic will now provide a means of assessing their pathogenicity in guinea fowl in controlled experimental conditions and to assess whether they are primary viral pathogens of the disease "guinea fowl fulminating enteritis".RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTSFirst isolation of guinea fowl coronaviruses and picornaviruses.Eggs homologous to the infected species are key for isolation.Isolates available to precisely evaluate the virus roles in fulminating enteritis.First full-length genome sequences of guinea fowl picornaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Courtillon
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | - François-Xavier Briand
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | - Chantal Allée
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | - Maud Contrant
- GVB Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | - Véronique Beven
- GVB Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | - Pierrick Lucas
- GVB Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | - Yannick Blanchard
- GVB Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | | | - Nicolas Eterradossi
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | | | - Béatrice Grasland
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
| | - Paul Brown
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Ploufragan, France
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Shehata AA, Basiouni S, Sting R, Akimkin V, Hoferer M, Hafez HM. Poult Enteritis and Mortality Syndrome in Turkey Poults: Causes, Diagnosis and Preventive Measures. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11072063. [PMID: 34359191 PMCID: PMC8300142 DOI: 10.3390/ani11072063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The poult enteritis and mortality syndrome (PEMS) causes severe economic losses in turkeys. Several agents were described to be associated with the PEMS; however, a specific etiological agent(s) has not been identified. The diagnosis of PEMS is still a huge challenge for several reasons: (1) no specific clinical signs or pathognomonic lesions, (2) isolation of some enteric viruses still difficult, (3) the pathogenicity of several enteric viruses in turkeys is not fully understood, (4) PEMS is an interaction between several known and might be unknown agents and (5) opportunistic microorganisms also have a role in the pathogenesis of PEMS. Both electron microscopy and molecular techniques can be used for diagnosis of PEMS and might help to discover unknown causes. Until now, no specific vaccines against enteric viruses associated with PEMS. However, biosecurity, maintaining a healthy gut and strengthening the immune system of turkey poults using probiotics, prebiotics and/or phytogenic substances are crucial factors to prevent and/or reduce losses of PEMS in turkeys. This review is a call for scientists to perform further research to investigate the real cause(s) of PEMS and to develop a preventive strategy against it. Abstract Poult enteritis and mortality syndrome (PEMS) is one of the most significant problem affecting turkeys and continues to cause severe economic losses worldwide. Although the specific causes of PEMS remains unknown, this syndrome might involve an interaction between several causative agents such as enteropathogenic viruses (coronaviruses, rotavirus, astroviruses and adenoviruses) and bacteria and protozoa. Non-infectious causes such as feed and management are also interconnected factors. However, it is difficult to determine the specific cause of enteric disorders under field conditions. Additionally, similarities of clinical signs and lesions hamper the accurate diagnosis. The purpose of the present review is to discuss in detail the main viral possible causative agents of PEMS and challenges in diagnosis and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Awad A. Shehata
- Birds and Rabbit Medicine Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City 32897, Egypt
- Research and Development Section, PerNaturam GmbH, 56290 Gödenroth, Germany
- Correspondence: (A.A.S.); (H.M.H.)
| | - Shereen Basiouni
- Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt;
| | - Reinhard Sting
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Stuttgart, 70736 Fellbach, Germany; (R.S.); (V.A.)
| | - Valerij Akimkin
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Stuttgart, 70736 Fellbach, Germany; (R.S.); (V.A.)
| | - Marc Hoferer
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Freiburg, 79108 Freiburg, Germany;
| | - Hafez M. Hafez
- Institute of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Free University of Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
- Correspondence: (A.A.S.); (H.M.H.)
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Domanska-Blicharz K, Sajewicz-Krukowska J. Recombinant turkey coronavirus: are some S gene structures of gammacoronaviruses especially prone to exchange? Poult Sci 2021; 100:101018. [PMID: 33662661 PMCID: PMC7937746 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to characterize the atypical turkey coronavirus strain detected in a commercial meat turkey farm in Poland. Using the viral metagenomics approach, we obtained a complete genome sequence of coronavirus, isolated from duodenum samples of animals suffering from acute enteritis. The nearly full-length genome consisted of 27,614 nucleotides and presented a typical genetic organization similar to that of Polish infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) or French turkey coronavirus/guinea fowl coronavirus strains. Phylogenetic analysis based on both the full-length genome and the whole S gene suggested that gCoV/Tk/Poland/G160/2016 is related to turkey and guinea fowl coronavirus and not IBV strains. Sequence analysis of the genome revealed unique genetic characteristics of the present strain, demonstrating that the virus emerged as a result of the exchange of the S gene of IBV GI-19 lineage with the S gene related to the North American turkey coronaviruses and French guinea fowl coronaviruses. Analysis of earlier, similar recombinations suggests that both the S gene structures may be particularly mobile, willingly switching between different gammacoronavirus genomic backbones. The identified recombinant caused a severe course of the disease, which may imply that it is in the first phase of breaking the barriers between different bird species.
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5
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Detection and Discovery of Coronaviruses in Wild Bird Populations. Methods Mol Biol 2020. [PMID: 32833202 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0900-2_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Wild birds are natural hosts of multiple microbial agents, including a wide diversity of coronaviruses. Here we describe a pan-Coronavirus detection RT-PCR method to identify those viruses regardless of the coronavirus genus or nature of the specimen. We also describe a protocol using high-throughput sequencing technologies to obtain their entire genome, which overcomes the inherent difficulties of wild bird coronavirus sequencing, that is, their genetic diversity and the lack of virus isolation methods.
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6
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Brown PA, Courtillon C, Weerts EAWS, Andraud M, Allée C, Vendembeuche A, Amelot M, Rose N, Verheije MH, Eterradossi N. Transmission Kinetics and histopathology induced by European Turkey Coronavirus during experimental infection of specific pathogen free turkeys. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 66:234-242. [PMID: 30146717 PMCID: PMC7138094 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Numerous viruses, mostly in mixed infections, have been associated worldwide with poult enteritis complex (PEC). In 2008 a coronavirus (Fr‐TCoV 080385d) was isolated in France from turkey poults exhibiting clinical signs compatible with this syndrome. In the present study, the median infectious dose (ID50), transmission kinetics and pathogenicity of Fr‐TCoV were investigated in 10‐day‐old SPF turkeys. Results revealed a titre of 104.88ID50/ml with 1 ID50/ml being beyond the limit of genome detection using a well‐characterized qRT‐PCR for avian coronaviruses. Horizontal transmission of the virus via the airborne route was not observed however, via the oro‐faecal route this proved to be extremely rapid (one infectious individual infecting another every 2.5 hr) and infectious virus was excreted for at least 6 weeks in several birds. Histological examination of different zones of the intestinal tract of the Fr‐TCoV‐infected turkeys showed that the virus had a preference for the lower part of the intestinal tract with an abundance of viral antigen being present in epithelial cells of the ileum, caecum and bursa of Fabricius. Viral antigen was also detected in dendritic cells, monocytes and macrophages in these areas, which may indicate a potential for Fr‐TCoV to replicate in antigen‐presenting cells. Together these results highlight the importance of good sanitary practices in turkey farms to avoid introducing minute amounts of virus that could suffice to initiate an outbreak, and the need to consider that infected individuals may still be infectious long after a clinical episode, to avoid virus dissemination through the movements of apparently recovered birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Brown
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), Université de Caen, Caen, France
| | - Céline Courtillon
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), Université de Caen, Caen, France
| | - Erik A W S Weerts
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathobiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Mathieu Andraud
- EBEP Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Chantal Allée
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), Université de Caen, Caen, France
| | - Anthony Vendembeuche
- SELEAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Michel Amelot
- SELEAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Nicolas Rose
- EBEP Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France
| | - Monique H Verheije
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathobiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Nicolas Eterradossi
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Bretagne Loire, Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), Université de Caen, Caen, France
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7
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Martini MC, Caserta LC, Dos Santos MMAB, Barnabé ACS, Durães-Carvalho R, Padilla MA, Simão RM, Rizotto LS, Simas PVM, Bastos JCS, Cardoso TC, Felippe PAN, Ferreira HL, Arns CW. Avian coronavirus isolated from a pigeon sample induced clinical disease, tracheal ciliostasis, and a high humoral response in day-old chicks. Avian Pathol 2018. [PMID: 29517348 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2018.1442557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The detection of avian coronaviruses (AvCoV) in wild birds and the emergence of new AvCoV have increased in the past few years. In the present study, the pathogenicity of three AvCoV isolates was investigated in day-old chicks. One AvCoV isolated from a pigeon, which clustered with the Massachusetts vaccine serotype, and two AvCoV isolated from chickens, which grouped with a Brazilian genotype lineage, were used. Clinical signs, gross lesions, histopathological changes, ciliary activity, viral RNA detection, and serology were evaluated during 42 days post infection. All AvCoV isolates induced clinical signs, gross lesions in the trachea, moderate histopathological changes in the respiratory tract, and mild changes in other tissues. AvCoV isolated from the pigeon sample caused complete tracheal ciliostasis over a longer time span. Specific viral RNA was detected in all tissues, but the highest RNA loads were detected in the digestive tract (cloacal swabs and ileum). The highest antibody levels were also detected in the group infected with an isolate from the pigeon. These results confirm the pathogenicity of Brazilian variants, which can cause disease and induce gross lesions and histopathological changes in chickens. Our results suggest that non-Galliformes birds can also play a role in the ecology of AvCoV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matheus C Martini
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Leonardo C Caserta
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | | | - Ana C S Barnabé
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Ricardo Durães-Carvalho
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Marina A Padilla
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Raphael M Simão
- c Postgraduate Program in Experimental Epidemiology of Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science , University of Sao Paulo (FMVZ-USP) , Sao Paulo , SP , Brazil
| | - Laís S Rizotto
- c Postgraduate Program in Experimental Epidemiology of Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science , University of Sao Paulo (FMVZ-USP) , Sao Paulo , SP , Brazil
| | - Paulo V M Simas
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Juliana C S Bastos
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Tereza C Cardoso
- e DAPSA Department, Laboratory of Animal Virology and Cell Culture , College of Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Estadual Paulista , Araçatuba , SP , Brazil
| | - Paulo A N Felippe
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Helena L Ferreira
- b Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering , University of Sao Paulo (FZEA-USP) , Pirassununga , SP , Brazil.,c Postgraduate Program in Experimental Epidemiology of Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science , University of Sao Paulo (FMVZ-USP) , Sao Paulo , SP , Brazil
| | - Clarice W Arns
- a Laboratory of Animal Virology , Institute of Biology, University of Campinas-UNICAMP , Campinas , SP , Brazil
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8
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Brown PA, Touzain F, Briand FX, Gouilh AM, Courtillon C, Allée C, Lemaitre E, De Boisséson C, Blanchard Y, Eterradossi N. First complete genome sequence of European turkey coronavirus suggests complex recombination history related with US turkey and guinea fowl coronaviruses. J Gen Virol 2015; 97:110-120. [PMID: 26585962 PMCID: PMC7081074 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A full-length genome sequence of 27 739 nt was determined for the only known European turkey coronavirus (TCoV) isolate. In general, the order, number and size of ORFs were consistent with other gammacoronaviruses. Three points of recombination were predicted, one towards the end of 1a, a second in 1b just upstream of S and a third in 3b. Phylogenetic analysis of the four regions defined by these three points supported the previous notion that European and American viruses do indeed have different evolutionary pathways. Very close relationships were revealed between the European TCoV and the European guinea fowl coronavirus in all regions except one, and both were shown to be closely related to the European infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) Italy 2005. None of these regions of sequence grouped European and American TCoVs. The region of sequence containing the S gene was unique in grouping all turkey and guinea fowl coronaviruses together, separating them from IBVs. Interestingly the French guinea fowl virus was more closely related to the North American viruses. These data demonstrate that European turkey and guinea fowl coronaviruses share a common genetic backbone (most likely an ancestor of IBV Italy 2005) and suggest that this recombined in two separate events with different, yet related, unknown avian coronaviruses, acquiring their S-3a genes. The data also showed that the North American viruses do not share a common backbone with European turkey and guinea fowl viruses; however, they do share similar S-3a genes with guinea fowl virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Brown
- EPICOREM Consortium, Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France.,VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - F Touzain
- VB Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, G, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - F X Briand
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France
| | - A M Gouilh
- EPICOREM Consortium, Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France.,Institut Pasteur, Environment and Infectious Risks Research and Expertise Unit, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, F-75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.,Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France
| | - C Courtillon
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France
| | - C Allée
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France
| | - E Lemaitre
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France
| | - C De Boisséson
- VB Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, G, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Y Blanchard
- VB Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (Anses), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, G, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - N Eterradossi
- VIPAC Unit, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire (ANSES), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané, Université Européenne de Bretagne, BP 53-22440 Ploufragan, France.,EPICOREM Consortium, Université de Caen, Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), F-14000 Caen, France
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