1
|
Isom M, Desaire H. Skin Surface Sebum Analysis by ESI-MS. Biomolecules 2024; 14:790. [PMID: 39062504 DOI: 10.3390/biom14070790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2024] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The skin surface is an important sample source that the metabolomics community has only just begun to explore. Alterations in sebum, the lipid-rich mixture coating the skin surface, correlate with age, sex, ethnicity, diet, exercise, and disease state, making the skin surface an ideal sample source for future noninvasive biomarker exploration, disease diagnosis, and forensic investigation. The potential of sebum sampling has been realized primarily via electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), an ideal approach to assess the skin surface lipidome. However, a better understanding of sebum collection and subsequent ESI-MS analysis is required before skin surface sampling can be implemented in routine analyses. Challenges include ambiguity in definitive lipid identification, inherent biological variability in sebum production, and methodological, technical variability in analyses. To overcome these obstacles, avoid common pitfalls, and achieve reproducible, robust outcomes, every portion of the workflow-from sample collection to data analysis-should be carefully considered with the specific application in mind. This review details current practices in sebum sampling, sample preparation, ESI-MS data acquisition, and data analysis, and it provides important considerations in acquiring meaningful lipidomic datasets from the skin surface. Forensic researchers investigating sebum as a means for suspect elimination in lieu of adequate fingerprint ridge detail or database matches, as well as clinical researchers interested in noninvasive biomarker exploration, disease diagnosis, and treatment monitoring, can use this review as a guide for developing methods of best-practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madeline Isom
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | - Heather Desaire
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Delafiori J, Siciliano RF, de Oliveira AN, Nicolau JC, Sales GM, Dalçóquio TF, Busanello ENB, Eguti A, de Oliveira DN, Bertolin AJ, Dos Santos LA, Salsoso R, Marcondes-Braga FG, Durán N, Júnior MWP, Sabino EC, Reis LO, Fávaro WJ, Catharino RR. Comparing plasma and skin imprint metabolic profiles in COVID-19 diagnosis and severity assessment. J Mol Med (Berl) 2024; 102:183-195. [PMID: 38010437 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-023-02396-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
As SARS-CoV-2 continues to produce new variants, the demand for diagnostics and a better understanding of COVID-19 remain key topics in healthcare. Skin manifestations have been widely reported in cases of COVID-19, but the mechanisms and markers of these symptoms are poorly described. In this cross-sectional study, 101 patients (64 COVID-19 positive patients and 37 controls) were enrolled between April and June 2020, during the first wave of COVID-19, in São Paulo, Brazil. Enrolled patients had skin imprints sampled non-invasively using silica plates; plasma samples were also collected. Samples were used for untargeted lipidomics/metabolomics through high-resolution mass spectrometry. We identified 558 molecular ions, with lipids comprising most of them. We found 245 plasma ions that were significant for COVID-19 diagnosis, compared to 61 from the skin imprints. Plasma samples outperformed skin imprints in distinguishing patients with COVID-19 from controls, with F1-scores of 91.9% and 84.3%, respectively. Skin imprints were excellent for assessing disease severity, exhibiting an F1-score of 93.5% when discriminating between patient hospitalization and home care statuses. Specifically, oleamide and linoleamide were the most discriminative biomarkers for identifying hospitalized patients through skin imprinting, and palmitic amides and N-acylethanolamine 18:0 were also identified as significant biomarkers. These observations underscore the importance of primary fatty acid amides and N-acylethanolamines in immunomodulatory processes and metabolic disorders. These findings confirm the potential utility of skin imprinting as a valuable non-invasive sampling method for COVID-19 screening; a method that may also be applied in the evaluation of other medical conditions. KEY MESSAGES: Skin imprints complement plasma in disease metabolomics. The annotated markers have a role in immunomodulation and metabolic diseases. Skin imprints outperformed plasma samples at assessing disease severity. Skin imprints have potential as non-invasive sampling strategy for COVID-19.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeany Delafiori
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Rua Cinco de Junho, 350 - 13083-970 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Rinaldo Focaccia Siciliano
- Clinical Division of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil - Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 455 - 01246-903 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil - Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 - 05403-900 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Arthur Noin de Oliveira
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Rua Cinco de Junho, 350 - 13083-970 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - José Carlos Nicolau
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil - Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 - 05403-900 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Geovana Manzan Sales
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Rua Cinco de Junho, 350 - 13083-970 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Talia Falcão Dalçóquio
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil - Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 - 05403-900 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Estela Natacha Brandt Busanello
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Rua Cinco de Junho, 350 - 13083-970 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Adriana Eguti
- Sumaré State Hospital, Sumaré, Brazil - Av. da Amizade, 2400 - 13175-490 - Jardim Bela Vista, Sumaré, SP, Brazil
| | - Diogo Noin de Oliveira
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Rua Cinco de Junho, 350 - 13083-970 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Adriadne Justi Bertolin
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil - Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 - 05403-900 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luiz Augusto Dos Santos
- Paulínia Municipal Hospital, Paulínia, Brazil - Rua Miguel Vicente Cury, 100 - 13140-000 - Nova Paulínia, Paulínia, SP, Brazil
| | - Rocío Salsoso
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil - Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 - 05403-900 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fabiana G Marcondes-Braga
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil - Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 - 05403-900 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Nelson Durán
- Laboratory of Urogenital Carcinogenesis and Immunotherapy, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Av. Bertrand Russel, s/n - 13083-865 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campina, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Ester Cerdeira Sabino
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil - Avenida Dr. Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 470 - 05403-000 - Cerqueira César, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Oliveira Reis
- UroScience Laboratory, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Rua Tessália Vieira de Camargo, 126 - 13083-887 - Cidade, Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Center for Life Sciences, Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas, PUC-Campinas, Brazil - Av. John Boyd Dunlop, s/n - 13060-904 - Jd. Ipaussurama, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Wagner José Fávaro
- Laboratory of Urogenital Carcinogenesis and Immunotherapy, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Av. Bertrand Russel, s/n - 13083-865 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campina, SP, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Ramos Catharino
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil - Rua Cinco de Junho, 350 - 13083-970 - Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Orkin S, Zhao X, Setchell KDR, Carr E, Arce-Clachar AC, Bramlage K, Huang R, Fei L, Beck AF, Fawaz R, Valentino PL, Xanthakos SA, Mouzaki M. Food Insecurity and Pediatric Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Severity. J Pediatr 2024; 265:113818. [PMID: 37931698 PMCID: PMC11108653 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2023.113818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the association between food insecurity and pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). METHODS Cross-sectional study of patients < 21 years of age with histologically confirmed NAFLD. The Household Food Security Survey Module was administered to determine food insecurity status. Skin lipidomics were performed to explore pathophysiologic mechanisms. RESULTS Seventy-three patients with histologically confirmed NAFLD completed the Household Food Security Survey Module. Of these, the majority were male (81%) and non-Hispanic (53%), with a mean age at biopsy of 13 ± 3 years. Food insecurity was seen in 42% (n = 31). Comparison of features between food insecure and food secure subgroups revealed no differences in sex, ethnicity, BMI z-score, aminotransferases, or histologic severity. However, children experiencing food insecurity presented on average 2 years before their food secure counterparts (12.3 ± 3.0 vs 14.4 ± 3.6 years, P = .015). A subset of 31 patients provided skin samples. Skin lipidomics revealed that food insecurity was associated with down-regulated features from the lipoamino acid class of lipids, previously linked to inflammation and adipocyte differentiation. CONCLUSIONS Food insecurity is highly prevalent in children with NAFLD and is associated with earlier presentation. Lipidomic analyses suggest a possible pathophysiologic link that warrants further exploration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Orkin
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH; Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Xueheng Zhao
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH; Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Kenneth D R Setchell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH; Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Emily Carr
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yale New Haven Children's Hospital, New Haven, CT
| | - Ana Catalina Arce-Clachar
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH; Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Kristin Bramlage
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Rong Huang
- Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Lin Fei
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH; Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Andrew F Beck
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH; James M. Anderson Center for Health Systems Excellence, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH; Division of General and Community Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH; Division of Hospital Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Rima Fawaz
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yale New Haven Children's Hospital, New Haven, CT; Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Pamela L Valentino
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT; Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Seattle Children's Hospital, Seattle, WA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Stavra A Xanthakos
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH; Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Marialena Mouzaki
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH; Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
de Souza HMR, Pereira TTP, de Sá HC, Alves MA, Garrett R, Canuto GAB. Critical Factors in Sample Collection and Preparation for Clinical Metabolomics of Underexplored Biological Specimens. Metabolites 2024; 14:36. [PMID: 38248839 PMCID: PMC10819689 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14010036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
This review article compiles critical pre-analytical factors for sample collection and extraction of eight uncommon or underexplored biological specimens (human breast milk, ocular fluids, sebum, seminal plasma, sweat, hair, saliva, and cerebrospinal fluid) under the perspective of clinical metabolomics. These samples are interesting for metabolomics studies as they reflect the status of living organisms and can be applied for diagnostic purposes and biomarker discovery. Pre-collection and collection procedures are critical, requiring protocols to be standardized to avoid contamination and bias. Such procedures must consider cleaning the collection area, sample stimulation, diet, and food and drug intake, among other factors that impact the lack of homogeneity of the sample group. Precipitation of proteins and removal of salts and cell debris are the most used sample preparation procedures. This review intends to provide a global view of the practical aspects that most impact results, serving as a starting point for the designing of metabolomic experiments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hygor M. R. de Souza
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, LabMeta—LADETEC, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, Brazil;
| | - Tássia T. P. Pereira
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolucao, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil;
- Departamento de Biodiversidade, Evolução e Meio Ambiente, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto 35400-000, Brazil
| | - Hanna C. de Sá
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador 40170-115, Brazil;
| | - Marina A. Alves
- Instituto de Pesquisa de Produtos Naturais Walter Mors, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-599, Brazil;
| | - Rafael Garrett
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, LabMeta—LADETEC, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, Brazil;
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Boston Children’s Hospital—Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Gisele A. B. Canuto
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador 40170-115, Brazil;
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Walker R, Fothergill-Misbah N, Kariuki S, Ojo O, Cilia R, Dekker MCJ, Agabi O, Akpalu A, Amod F, Breckons M, Cham M, Del Din S, Dotchin C, Guggsa S, Kwasa J, Mushi D, Nwaokorie FO, Park T, Rochester L, Rogathi J, Sarfo FS, Shalash A, Ternent L, Urasa S, Okubadejo N. Transforming Parkinson's Care in Africa (TraPCAf): protocol for a multimethodology National Institute for Health and Care Research Global Health Research Group project. BMC Neurol 2023; 23:373. [PMID: 37858118 PMCID: PMC10585779 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-023-03414-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder and, according to the Global Burden of Disease estimates in 2015, was the fastest growing neurological disorder globally with respect to associated prevalence, disability, and deaths. Information regarding the awareness, diagnosis, phenotypic characteristics, epidemiology, prevalence, risk factors, treatment, economic impact and lived experiences of people with PD from the African perspective is relatively sparse in contrast to the developed world, and much remains to be learned from, and about, the continent. METHODS Transforming Parkinson's Care in Africa (TraPCAf) is a multi-faceted, mixed-methods, multi-national research grant. The study design includes multiple sub-studies, combining observational (qualitative and quantitative) approaches for the epidemiological, clinical, risk factor and lived experience components, as appropriate, and interventional methods (clinical trial component). The aim of TraPCAf is to describe and gain a better understanding of the current situation of PD in Africa. The countries included in this National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Global Health Research Group (Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania) represent diverse African geographies and genetic profiles, with differing resources, healthcare systems, health and social protection schemes, and policies. The research team is composed of experts in the field with vast experience in PD, jointly led by a UK-based and Africa-based investigator. DISCUSSION Despite the increasing prevalence of PD globally, robust data on the disease from Africa are lacking. Existing data point towards the poor awareness of PD and other neurological disorders on the continent and subsequent challenges with stigma, and limited access to affordable services and medication. This multi-site study will be the first of its kind in Africa. The data collected across the proposed sub-studies will provide novel and conclusive insights into the situation of PD. The selected country sites will allow for useful comparisons and make results relevant to other low- and middle-income countries. This grant is timely, as global recognition of PD and the public health challenge it poses builds. The work will contribute to broader initiatives, including the World Health Organization's Intersectoral global action plan on epilepsy and other neurological disorders. TRIAL REGISTRATION https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN77014546 .
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Walker
- Northumbria Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - N Fothergill-Misbah
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| | - S Kariuki
- Neuroscience Unit, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - O Ojo
- College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
- Lagos University Teaching Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - R Cilia
- Parkinson and Movement Disorders Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - M C J Dekker
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - O Agabi
- College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - A Akpalu
- University of Ghana Medical School, Korle Bu Teaching Hospital, Accra, Ghana
| | - F Amod
- University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - M Breckons
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - M Cham
- Richard Novati Catholic Hospital, Sogakope, Ghana
| | - S Del Din
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), Newcastle University and Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - C Dotchin
- Northumbria Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - S Guggsa
- Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - J Kwasa
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - D Mushi
- Institute of Public Health, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - F O Nwaokorie
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - T Park
- Parkinson's Africa, Kingston upon Thames, UK
| | - L Rochester
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), Newcastle University and Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - J Rogathi
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - F S Sarfo
- Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - A Shalash
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - L Ternent
- Population Health Sciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - S Urasa
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Moshi, Tanzania
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - N Okubadejo
- College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| |
Collapse
|