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Shalaby N, Kelly J, Martinez F, Fox M, Qi Q, Thiessen J, Hicks J, Scholl TJ, Ronald JA. A Human-derived Dual MRI/PET Reporter Gene System with High Translational Potential for Cell Tracking. Mol Imaging Biol 2022; 24:341-351. [PMID: 35146614 PMCID: PMC9235057 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-021-01697-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Reporter gene imaging has been extensively used to longitudinally report on whole-body distribution and viability of transplanted engineered cells. Multi-modal cell tracking can provide complementary information on cell fate. Typical multi-modal reporter gene systems often combine clinical and preclinical modalities. A multi-modal reporter gene system for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), two clinical modalities, would be advantageous by combining the sensitivity of PET with the high-resolution morphology and non-ionizing nature of MRI. PROCEDURES We developed and evaluated a dual MRI/PET reporter gene system composed of two human-derived reporter genes that utilize clinical reporter probes for engineered cell detection. As a proof-of-concept, breast cancer cells were engineered to co-express the human organic anion transporter polypeptide 1B3 (OATP1B3) that uptakes the clinical MRI contrast agent gadolinium ethoxybenzyl-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (Gd-EOB-DTPA), and the human sodium iodide symporter (NIS) which uptakes the PET tracer, [18F] tetrafluoroborate ([18F] TFB). RESULTS T1-weighted MRI results in mice exhibited significantly higher MRI signals in reporter-gene-engineered mammary fat pad tumors versus contralateral naïve tumors (p < 0.05). No differences in contrast enhancement were observed at 5 h after Gd-EOB-DTPA administration using either intravenous or intraperitoneal injection. We also found significantly higher standard uptake values (SUV) in engineered tumors in comparison to the naïve tumors in [18F]TFB PET images (p < 0.001). Intratumoral heterogeneity in signal enhancement was more conspicuous in relatively higher resolution MR images compared to PET images. CONCLUSIONS Our study demonstrates the ability to noninvasively track cells engineered with our human-derived dual MRI/PET reporter system, enabling a more comprehensive evaluation of transplanted cells. Future work is focused on applying this tool to track therapeutic cells, which may one day enable the broader application of cell tracking within the healthcare system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nourhan Shalaby
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.
| | - John Kelly
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
| | - Francisco Martinez
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
| | - Mathew Fox
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Canada
- Saint Joseph's Health Care, Toronto, Canada
| | - Qi Qi
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
| | - Jonathan Thiessen
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
- Saint Joseph's Health Care, Toronto, Canada
- Lawson Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Facility, London, Canada
| | - Justin Hicks
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Canada
- Lawson Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Facility, London, Canada
| | - Timothy J Scholl
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Canada
| | - John A Ronald
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
- Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Canada
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Liu SW, Hsu CH, Chen MR, Chiu IM, Lin KM. A Tri-fusion Reporter Mouse Reveals Tissue-Specific FGF1B Promoter Activity in vivo. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11143. [PMID: 31367001 PMCID: PMC6668445 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-47641-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Transgenic mice harboring imaging reporters take full advantage of imaging technologies in studies using living mice. Here, we established a tri-fusion multimodal reporter gene containing fragments from firefly luciferase, enhanced green fluorescent protein, and herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase and generated tri-fusion reporter Tg mice. Fibroblast growth factor type 1 (FGF1), a multifunctional mitogen to a wide range of tissues, regulates proliferation of neural stem cells of the brain, where FGF1 expression is initiated through activation of the FGF1B (F1B) promoter. The reporter mouse under the control of the human F1B promoter enables visualization in vivo where F1B activity is elevated, including tissues not only in the brain but also in the nasopharynx, skull, spine, and testes, particularly in Leydig cells. Treating Tg mice with the alkylating agent busulfan, which is known to eradicate Leydig cells and disrupt spermatogenesis in mice, eliminated the reporter signals. Restoring Leydig cells recovered reporter expression, indicating that the reporter can be used as a surrogate marker for Leydig cells. The F1B tri-fusion reporter mouse model can be utilized in longitudinal monitoring of the health status of the male reproductive system, such as in studies exploring the toxicity of chemicals to spermatogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan-Wen Liu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Nanomedicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Science, National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Han Hsu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Science, National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Ru Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Nanomedicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Ing-Ming Chiu
- Institute of Cellular and System Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Kurt M Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Nanomedicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli, Taiwan. .,Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Böhm I, Gehrke S, Kleb B, Hungerbühler M, Müller R, Klose KJ, Alfke H. Monitoring of tumor burden in vivo by optical imaging in a xenograft SCID mouse model: evaluation of two fluorescent proteins of the GFP-superfamily. Acta Radiol 2019; 60:315-326. [PMID: 29890843 DOI: 10.1177/0284185118780896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mouse models of human-malignant-melanoma (MM) are important tools to study tumor dynamics. The enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) is widely used in molecular imaging approaches, together with optical scanners, and fluorescence imaging. PURPOSE Currently, there are no data available as to whether other fluorescent proteins are more suitable. The goal of this preclinical study was to analyze two fluorescent proteins of the GFP superfamily under real-time in vivo conditions using fluorescence reflectance imaging (FRI). MATERIAL AND METHODS The human melanoma cell line MeWo was stable transfected with one plasmid: pEGFP-C1 or pDsRed1-N1. We investigated two severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)-mice groups: A (solid xenografts) and B (xenografts as metastases). After three weeks, the animals were weekly imaged by FRI. Afterwards the mice were euthanized and metastases were imaged in situ: to quantify the cutis-dependent reduction of emitted light, we compared signal intensities obtained by metastases in vivo with signal intensities obtained by in situ liver parenchyma preparations. RESULTS More than 90% of cells were stable transfected. EGFP-/DsRed-xenograft tumors had identical growth kinetics. In vivo the emitted light by DsRed tumors/metastases was much brighter than by EGFP. DsRed metastases were earlier (3 vs. 5 weeks) and much more sensitive detectable than EGFP metastases. Cutis-dependent reduction of emitted light was greater in EGFP than in DsRed mice (tenfold). Autofluorescence of DsRed was lower than of EGFP. CONCLUSION We established an in vivo xenograft mouse model (DsRed-MeWo) that is reliable, reproducible, and superior to the EGFP model as a preclinical tool to study innovative therapies by FRI under real-time in vivo conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Böhm
- Department of Diagnostic, Interventional, and Pediatric Radiology, Inselspital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Radiology Laboratory, Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Gehrke
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Beate Kleb
- Department of Experimental Ophthalmology, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Martin Hungerbühler
- Department of Diagnostic, Interventional, and Pediatric Radiology, Inselspital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Radiology Laboratory, Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Rolf Müller
- Institute of Molecular Tumor Biology and Cancer Gene Therapy (IMT), Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Klaus J Klose
- Deans Office, Faculty of Medicine, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Heiko Alfke
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Interventional Radiology, Klinikum Lüdenscheid, Lüdenscheid, Germany
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Li M, Wang Y, Liu M, Lan X. Multimodality reporter gene imaging: Construction strategies and application. Theranostics 2018; 8:2954-2973. [PMID: 29896296 PMCID: PMC5996353 DOI: 10.7150/thno.24108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular imaging has played an important role in the noninvasive exploration of multiple biological processes. Reporter gene imaging is a key part of molecular imaging. By combining with a reporter probe, a reporter protein can induce the accumulation of specific signals that are detectable by an imaging device to provide indirect information of reporter gene expression in living subjects. There are many types of reporter genes and each corresponding imaging technique has its own advantages and drawbacks. Fused reporter genes or single reporter genes with products detectable by multiple imaging modalities can compensate for the disadvantages and potentiate the advantages of each modality. Reporter gene multimodality imaging could be applied to trace implanted cells, monitor gene therapy, assess endogenous molecular events, screen drugs, etc. Although several types of multimodality imaging apparatus and multimodality reporter genes are available, more sophisticated detectors and multimodality reporter gene systems are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengting Li
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging
| | - Yichun Wang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging
| | - Mei Liu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging
| | - Xiaoli Lan
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging
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Sanches PG, Peters S, Rossin R, Kaijzel EL, Que I, Löwik CWGM, Grüll H. Bone metastasis imaging with SPECT/CT/MRI: a preclinical toolbox for therapy studies. Bone 2015; 75:62-71. [PMID: 25680341 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 01/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Bone is one of the most common metastatic target sites in breast cancer, with more than 200 thousand new cases of invasive cancer diagnosed in the US alone in 2011. We set out to establish a multimodality imaging platform for bone metastases in small animals as a tool to non-invasively quantify metastasis growth, imaging the ensuing bone lesions and possibly the response to treatment. To this end, a mouse model of osteolytic metastatic bone tumors was characterized with SPECT/CT and MRI over time. A cell line capable of forming bone metastases, MDA-MB-231, was genetically modified to stably express the reporter gene herpes simplex virus-1 thymidine kinase (hsv-1 tk). The intracellular accumulation of the radiolabeled tracer [(123)I]FIAU promoted by HSV-1 TK specifically pinpoints the location of tumor cells which can be imaged in vivo by SPECT. First, a study using tumors implanted subcutaneously was performed. The SPECT/MRI overlays and the ex vivo γ-counting showed a linear correlation in terms of %ID/cm(3) (R(2)=0.93) and %ID/g (R(2)=0.77), respectively. Then, bone metastasis growth was imaged weekly by SPECT/CT and T2-weighted MRI over a maximum of 40 days post-intracardiac injection of tumor cells. The first activity spots detectable with SPECT, around day 20 post-cell injection, were smaller than 2mm(3) and not yet visible by MRI and increased in volume and in %ID over the weeks. Osteolytic bone lesions were visible by CT (in vivo) and μCT (ex vivo). The SPECT/MRI overlays also showed a linear correlation in terms of %ID/cm(3) (R(2)=0.86). In conclusion, a new multimodality imaging platform has been established that non-invasively combines images of active tumor areas (SPECT), tumor volume (MRI) and the corresponding bone lesions (CT and μCT). To our knowledge this is the first report where the combination of soft tissue information from MRI, bone lesions by CT, and reporter gene imaging by SPECT is used to non-invasively follow metastatic bone lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Gomes Sanches
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Steffie Peters
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Raffaella Rossin
- Department of Oncology Solutions, Philips Research Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Eric L Kaijzel
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ivo Que
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Clemens W G M Löwik
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Holger Grüll
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Department of Oncology Solutions, Philips Research Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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Prignon A, Nataf V, Provost C, Cagnolini A, Montravers F, Gruaz-Guyon A, Lantry LE, Talbot JN, Nunn AD. (68)Ga-AMBA and (18)F-FDG for preclinical PET imaging of breast cancer: effect of tamoxifen treatment on tracer uptake by tumor. Nucl Med Biol 2014; 42:92-8. [PMID: 25459112 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AMBA is a bombesin analogue that binds to GRPr. In a mouse model of estrogen-dependent human breast cancer, we tested whether (68)Ga-AMBA can be used for PET detection of GRPr-expressing tumors and could be more accurate than (18)F-FDG to monitor tumor response to hormone therapy. METHODS The radiolabeling of (68)Ga-AMBA was automated using a R&D Synchrom module. ZR75-1, a breast cancer cell line, was xenografted in nude mice. (68)Ga-AMBA tumor uptake was compared with that of (18)F-FDG before and after treatment with tamoxifen. RESULTS AMBA was (68)Ga-radiolabelled in 30min with 95.3% yield and purity≥98%. Prior to treatment, (68)Ga-AMBA was highly concentrated into tumors (tumor to non-tumor ratio=2.4 vs. 1.3 with (18)F-FDG). With tamoxifen treatment (n=6) (68)Ga-AMBA uptake plateaued after 1week and decreased after 2weeks, with a significant reduction compared to controls (n=4). In contrast the effect of tamoxifen treatment could not be appreciated using (18)F-FDG. CONCLUSIONS (68)Ga-AMBA appeared better than (18)F-FDG to visualize and monitor the response to hormone treatment in this breast cancer model.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Prignon
- Plateforme LIMP, UMS28 Phénotypage du petit animal, UPMC, Paris, France.
| | - V Nataf
- Plateforme LIMP, UMS28 Phénotypage du petit animal, UPMC, Paris, France; APHP, Hôpital Tenon, Médecine nucléaire, Paris, France
| | - C Provost
- Plateforme LIMP, UMS28 Phénotypage du petit animal, UPMC, Paris, France
| | | | - F Montravers
- Plateforme LIMP, UMS28 Phénotypage du petit animal, UPMC, Paris, France; APHP, Hôpital Tenon, Médecine nucléaire, Paris, France
| | | | | | - J N Talbot
- Plateforme LIMP, UMS28 Phénotypage du petit animal, UPMC, Paris, France; APHP, Hôpital Tenon, Médecine nucléaire, Paris, France
| | - A D Nunn
- Bracco Research USA, Princeton USA
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Chen MR, Kao VYY, Liu SW, Wu TC, Yu HC, Hsu CH, Chen CT, Lin KM. NONINVASIVE OPTICAL IMAGING FOR TRACKING GENE DELIVERY AND RECOMBINATION IN TUMOR. BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING-APPLICATIONS BASIS COMMUNICATIONS 2012. [DOI: 10.4015/s1016237209001441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report the generation of optical imaging reporter breast tumor cells that allow the longitudinal, in vivo, noninvasive imaging of gene recombination in tumor. Tumor-gene targeting is a promising approach of treating cancers, and a suitable gene delivery method is the criteria for success. By using the cre lox genetic engineering tool, we targeted stable green fluorescent protein expression in metastatic-prone human breast cancer MDA-MB231 cells that switch to express firefly luciferase upon the exogenous delivery and expression of cre DNA recombinase. We tested this model in vivo by intratumor injection of cre adenovirus and demonstrated the usefulness of this model to achieve longitudinal bioluminescence imaging of DNA recombination in tumor. This optical imaging vector and tumor model will facilitate the research for biomaterial solutions for carriers in gene therapy, and in studies on tumor targeting, tracking for tumor metastasis and migration of tumor stem cells, and for determining the anticancer drug efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Ru Chen
- Division of Medical Engineering Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan Town, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Vivia Yu-Ying Kao
- Department of Biotechnology, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Shan-Wen Liu
- Division of Medical Engineering Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan Town, Miaoli, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Chin Wu
- Division of Medical Engineering Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan Town, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Hsiao-Chi Yu
- Division of Medical Engineering Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan Town, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Han Hsu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Tu Chen
- Department of Radiology and Committee on Medical Physics, University of Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kurt M. Lin
- Division of Medical Engineering Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan Town, Miaoli, Taiwan
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Studwell AJ, Kotton DN. A shift from cell cultures to creatures: in vivo imaging of small animals in experimental regenerative medicine. Mol Ther 2011; 19:1933-41. [PMID: 21952170 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2011.194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the use of small animals for in vivo experimentation has been widespread, only recently has there been easy availability of techniques that allow noninvasive in vivo imaging of small animals. Because these techniques allow the same individual subject to be followed longitudinally throughout the duration of an experiment, their use is rapidly changing the way small animals are employed in the laboratory. In this review, we focus on six imaging modalities that are increasingly employed for small animal in vivo imaging: optical imaging (OI), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), single-photon emission tomography (SPECT), ultrasound (US), and positron-emission tomography (PET). Each modality allows for the noninvasive tracking of cells and cell products in vivo. In addition, multimodality imaging, combining two or more of these techniques, has also been increasingly employed to overcome the limitations of each independent technique. After reviewing these available imaging modalities, we detail their experimental application, exemplified by the emerging field of regenerative medicine, referring to publications whose conclusions would otherwise be difficult to support without the availability of in vivo imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelique Louie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
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Rajasekaran S, Kao VYY, Chen MR, Yang ALT, Hsu CH, Chen CT, Lin KMC. Detection of Experimentally Induced Pulmonary Granuloma Inflammation in Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 Reporter Mice. Mol Imaging Biol 2009; 12:163-73. [DOI: 10.1007/s11307-009-0261-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2009] [Revised: 04/01/2009] [Accepted: 04/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Abstract
Cancer occurs as a result of misregulation of cell growth, which appears to be a consequence of alteration in the function of oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes. Ionising radiation has been used, since the discovery of X-rays in 1896 by Roentgen, both in cancer research and treatment of the disease. The main purpose of cancer research is to understand the molecular alterations involved in the development and progression of the disease in order to improve diagnosis and develop personalised therapies, by focusing on the features of the tumoral cell and the biological events associated to carcinogenesis. Radioisotopic techniques have been used routinely for in vitro research in the molecular and cellular biology of cancer for more than 20 years and are in the process of being substituted by alternative non-radioactive techniques. However in vivo techniques such as irradiation of cells in culture and/or experimental animal models and radioactive labelling are in development, due in part to advances in molecular imaging technologies. The objective of this review is to analyse in an integrative way the applications of ionising radiation in cancer research and therapy. It had been divided into two parts. The first one will approach the techniques applied to cancer research and the second will summarise how ionising radiation is applied to the treatment of neoplastic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M T Macías
- Servicio de Protección Radiológica, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Alberto Sols" CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.
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