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Wang Y, Fan W, Zhang G, Zhao L, Li T, Zhang L, Hou T, Hong H, You Z, Sun Q, Li R, Liu C. LRRK2 is involved in heat exposure-induced acute lung injury and alveolar type II epithelial cell dysfunction. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 347:123643. [PMID: 38428793 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Heat exposure induces excessive hyperthermia associated with systemic inflammatory response that leads to multiple organ dysfunction including acute lung injury. However, how heat impairs the lung remains elusive so far. We aimed to explore the underlying mechanism by focusing on leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), which was associated with lung homeostasis. Both in vivo and in vitro models were induced by heat exposure. Firstly, heat exposure exerted core temperature (Tc) disturbance, pulmonary dysfunction, atelectasis, inflammation, impaired energy metabolism, and reduced surfactant proteins in the lung of mice. In addition, decreased LRRK2 expression and increased heat shock proteins (HSPs) 70 were observed with heat exposure in both the lung of mice and alveolar type II epithelial cells (AT2). Furthermore, LRRK2 inhibition aggravated heat exposure-initiated Tc dysregulation, injury in the lung and AT2 cells, and enhanced HSP70 expression. In conclusion, LRRK2 is involved in heat-induced acute lung injury and AT2 cell dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yindan Wang
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenjun Fan
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guoqing Zhang
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lisha Zhao
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ting Li
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Tong Hou
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Huihua Hong
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhenqiang You
- School of Public Health, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qinghua Sun
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ran Li
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China
| | - Cuiqing Liu
- School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Air Pollution and Health, Hangzhou, China.
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Baidya AT, Deshwal S, Das B, Mathew AT, Devi B, Sandhir R, Kumar R. Catalyzing a Cure: Discovery and development of LRRK2 inhibitors for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Bioorg Chem 2024; 143:106972. [PMID: 37995640 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related second most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. Despite decades of research, no effective disease modifying therapeutics have reached clinics for treatment/management of PD. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) which controls membrane trafficking and lysosomal function and its variant LRRK2-G2019S are involved in the development of both familial and sporadic PD. LRRK2, is therefore considered as a legitimate target for the development of therapeutics against PD. During the last decade, efforts have been made to develop effective, safe and selective LRRK2 inhibitors and also our understanding about LRRK2 has progressed. However, there is an urge to learn from the previously designed and reported LRRK2 inhibitors in order to effectively approach designing of new LRRK2 inhibitors. In this review, we have aimed to cover the pre-clinical studies undertaken to develop small molecule LRRK2 inhibitors by screening the patents and other available literature in the last decade. We have highlighted LRRK2 as targets in the progress of PD and subsequently covered detailed design, synthesis and development of diverse scaffolds as LRRK2 inhibitors. Moreover, LRRK2 inhibitors under clinical development has also been discussed. LRRK2 inhibitors seem to be potential targets for future therapeutic interventions in the treatment and management of PD and this review can act as a cynosure for guiding discovery, design, and development of selective and non-toxic LRRK2 inhibitors. Although, there might be challenges in developing effective LRRK2 inhibitors, the opportunity to successfully develop novel therapeutics targeting LRRK2 against PD has never been greater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anurag Tk Baidya
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Sonam Deshwal
- Department of Biochemistry, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - Bhanuranjan Das
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Alen T Mathew
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Bharti Devi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Rajat Sandhir
- Department of Biochemistry, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - Rajnish Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India.
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Malik N, Kornelsen R, McCormick S, Colpo N, Merkens H, Bendre S, Benard F, Sossi V, Schirrmacher R, Schaffer P. Development and biological evaluation of[ 18F]FMN3PA & [ 18F]FMN3PU for leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) in vivo PET imaging. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 211:113005. [PMID: 33248850 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.113005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Among all genetic mutations of LRRK2, the G2019S mutation is the most commonly associated with the late-onset of Parkinson's disease (PD). Hence, one potential therapeutic approach is to block the hyperactivity of mutated LRRK2 induced by kinase inhibition. To date, only a few LRRK2 kinase inhibitors have been tested for in vivo quantification of target engagement by positron emission tomography (PET). In this study, we performed biological evaluations of two radiolabeled kinase inhibitors i.e. [18F]FMN3PA (14) and [18F]FMN3PU for LRRK2 (15). PROCEDURES Radiosyntheses of [18F]FMN3PA (14) and [18F]FMN3PU (15) were performed using K[18F]-F-K222 complex in a TRACERlab FXN module and purification was carried out via C18 plus (Sep-Pak) cartridges. In vitro specific binding assays were performed in rat brain striatum and kidney tissues using GNE-0877 as a blocking agent (Ki = 0.7 nM). For in vivo blocking, 3 mg/kg of GNE-0877 was injected 30 min before radiotracer injection via tail vein in wild-type (WT) mice (n = 4). Dynamic scans by PET/CT (Siemens Inveon) were performed in WT mice (n = 3). RESULTS Radiofluorinations resulted in radiochemical yields (RCYs) of 25 ± 1.3% (n = 6) ([18F]FMN3PU, 15) and 37 ± 1.6% (n = 6) ([18F]FMN3PA, 14) with ≥96% radiochemical purity (RCP) and a molar activity (MA) of 3.55 ± 1.6 Ci/μmol (131 ± 56 GBq/μmol) for [18F]FMN3PU (15) and 4.57 ± 1.7 Ci/μmol (169 ± 63 GBq/μmol) for [18F]FMN3PA (14), respectively. Saturation assays showed high specific binding for rat brain striatum with Kd 20 ± 1.3 nM ([18F]FMN3PA, 14) and 23.6 ± 4.0 nM ([18F]FMN3PU, 15). In vivo blocking data for [18F]FMN3PA (14) was significant for brain (p < 0.0001, 77% blocking) and kidney (p = 0.0041, 65% blocking). PET images showed uptake in mouse brain striatum. CONCLUSION In the presence of GNE-0877 as a blocking agent, the specific binding of [18F]FMN3PA (14) and [18F]FMN3PU (15) was significant in vitro. [18F]FMN3PA (14) showed good brain uptake in vivo, though fast clearance from brain was observed (within 10-15 min).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Nadine Colpo
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada
| | - Helen Merkens
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada
| | - Shreya Bendre
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada
| | - Francois Benard
- Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Institute, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Vesna Sossi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Paul Schaffer
- Life Sciences Division, TRIUMF, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of British Columbia, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Canada.
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Rideout HJ, Chartier-Harlin MC, Fell MJ, Hirst WD, Huntwork-Rodriguez S, Leyns CEG, Mabrouk OS, Taymans JM. The Current State-of-the Art of LRRK2-Based Biomarker Assay Development in Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:865. [PMID: 33013290 PMCID: PMC7461933 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence is mounting that LRRK2 function, particularly its kinase activity, is elevated in multiple forms of Parkinson's disease, both idiopathic as well as familial forms linked to mutations in the LRRK2 gene. However, sensitive quantitative markers of LRRK2 activation in clinical samples remain at the early stages of development. There are several measures of LRRK2 activity that could potentially be used in longitudinal studies of disease progression, as inclusion/exclusion criteria for clinical trials, to predict response to therapy, or as markers of target engagement. Among these are levels of LRRK2, phosphorylation of LRRK2 itself, either by other kinases or via auto-phosphorylation, its in vitro kinase activity, or phosphorylation of downstream substrates. This is advantageous on many levels, in that multiple indices of elevated kinase activity clearly strengthen the rationale for targeting this kinase with novel therapeutic candidates, and provide alternate markers of activation in certain tissues or biofluids for which specific measures are not detectable. However, this can also complicate interpretation of findings from different studies using disparate measures. In this review we discuss the current state of LRRK2-focused biomarkers, the advantages and disadvantages of the current pallet of outcome measures, the gaps that need to be addressed, and the priorities that the field has defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hardy J. Rideout
- Division of Basic Neurosciences, Biomedical Research Foundation, Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Marie-Christine Chartier-Harlin
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Lille, France
- Inserm, UMR-S 1172, Team “Brain Biology and Chemistry”, Lille, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Jean-Marc Taymans
- Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Lille, France
- Inserm, UMR-S 1172, Team “Brain Biology and Chemistry”, Lille, France
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Mori W, Yamasaki T, Hattori Y, Zhang Y, Kumata K, Fujinaga M, Hanyu M, Nengaki N, Zhang H, Zhang MR. Radiosynthesis and evaluation of 4-(6-[ 18F]Fluoro-4-(5-isopropoxy-1 H-indazol-3-yl)pyridin-2-yl)morpholine as a novel radiotracer candidate targeting leucine-rich repeat kinase 2. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:676-684. [PMID: 33479667 DOI: 10.1039/c9md00590k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations that increase leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) activity in the brain are associated with Parkinson's disease. Here, we synthesized a novel compound 4-(6-fluoro-4-(5-isopropoxy-1H-indazol-3-yl)pyridin-2-yl)morpholine (FIPM) and labeled it with fluorine-18 (18F), to develop a positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for in vivo visualization of LRRK2 in the brain. FIPM showed high in vitro binding affinity for LRRK2 (IC50 = 8.0 nM). [18F]FIPM was prepared in 5% radiochemical yield (n = 5), by inserting 18F into a pyridine ring, followed by removal of the protecting group. After HPLC separation and formulation, [18F]FIPM was acquired with >97% radiochemical purity and 103-300 GBq μmol-1 of molar activity at the end of radiosynthesis. Biodistribution and small-animal PET studies in mice indicated a low in vivo specific binding of [18F]FIPM. While [18F]FIPM presented limited potential as an in vivo PET tracer for LRRK2, we suggested that it can be used as a lead compound for developing new radiotracers with improved in vivo brain properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wakana Mori
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
| | - Tomoteru Yamasaki
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
| | - Yasushi Hattori
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
| | - Yiding Zhang
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
| | - Katsushi Kumata
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
| | - Masayuki Fujinaga
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
| | - Masayuki Hanyu
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
| | - Nobuki Nengaki
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan . .,SHI Accelerator Service Co. Ltd , 5-9-11, Kitashinagawa, Shinagawa-ku , Tokyo 141-8686 , Japan
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Medical PET Center , The Second Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine , 88 Jiefang Rd , Hangzhou , Hangzhou 310009 , China .
| | - Ming-Rong Zhang
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences , National Institute of Radiological Sciences , National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku , Chiba , 263-8555 , Japan .
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6
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Tolosa E, Vila M, Klein C, Rascol O. LRRK2 in Parkinson disease: challenges of clinical trials. Nat Rev Neurol 2020; 16:97-107. [PMID: 31980808 DOI: 10.1038/s41582-019-0301-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
One of the most common monogenic forms of Parkinson disease (PD) is caused by mutations in the LRRK2 gene that encodes leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2). LRRK2 mutations, and particularly the most common mutation Gly2019Ser, are observed in patients with autosomal dominant PD and in those with apparent sporadic PD, who are clinically indistinguishable from those with idiopathic PD. The discoveries that pathogenic mutations in the LRRK2 gene increase LRRK2 kinase activity and that small-molecule LRRK2 kinase inhibitors can be neuroprotective in preclinical models of PD have placed LRRK2 at the centre of disease modification efforts in PD. Recent investigations also suggest that LRRK2 has a role in the pathogenesis of idiopathic PD and that LRRK2 therapies might, therefore, be beneficial in this common subtype of PD. In this Review, we describe the characteristics of LRRK2-associated PD that are most relevant to the development of LRRK2-targeted therapies and the design and implementation of clinical trials. We highlight strategies for correcting the effects of mutations in the LRRK2 gene, focusing on how to identify which patients are the optimal candidates and how to decide on the timing of such trials. In addition, we discuss challenges in implementing trials of disease-modifying treatment in people who carry LRRK2 mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Tolosa
- Parkinson and Movement Disorders Unit, Neurology Service, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. .,Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Miquel Vila
- Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain.,Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Christine Klein
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Olivier Rascol
- Clinical Investigation Center CIC1436, Departments of Clinical Pharmacology and Neurosciences, NS-Park/FCRIN network and NeuroToul Center of Excellence for Neurodegeneration, INSERM, University Hospital of Toulouse and University of Toulouse, Toulouse, France
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Abstract
Kinase activating missense mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are pathogenically linked to neurodegenerative Parkinson's disease (PD). Over the past decade, substantial effort has been devoted to the development of potent and selective small molecule inhibitors of LRRK2, as well as their preclinical testing across different Parkinson's disease models. This review outlines the genetic and biochemical evidence that pathogenic missense mutations increase LRRK2 kinase activity, which in turn provides the rationale for the development of small molecule inhibitors as potential PD therapeutics. An overview of progress in the development of LRRK2 inhibitors is provided, which in particular indicates that highly selective and potent compounds capable of clinical utility have been developed. We outline evidence from rodent- and human-induced pluripotent stem cell models that support a pathogenic role for LRRK2 kinase activity, and review the substantial experiments aimed at evaluating the safety of LRRK2 inhibitors. We address challenges still to overcome in the translational therapeutic pipeline, including biomarker development and clinical trial strategies, and finally outline the potential utility of LRRK2 inhibitors for other genetic forms of PD and ultimately sporadic PD. Collective evidence supports the ongoing clinical translation of LRRK2 inhibitors as a therapeutic intervention for PD is greatly needed.
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Zhao Y, Perera G, Takahashi-Fujigasaki J, Mash DC, Vonsattel JPG, Uchino A, Hasegawa K, Jeremy Nichols R, Holton JL, Murayama S, Dzamko N, Halliday GM. Reduced LRRK2 in association with retromer dysfunction in post-mortem brain tissue from LRRK2 mutation carriers. Brain 2018; 141:486-495. [PMID: 29253086 PMCID: PMC5837795 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awx344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Missense mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are pathogenic for familial Parkinson's disease. However, it is unknown whether levels of LRRK2 protein in the brain are altered in patients with LRRK2-associated Parkinson's disease. Because LRRK2 mutations are relatively rare, accounting for approximately 1% of all Parkinson's disease, we accessioned cases from five international brain banks to investigate levels of the LRRK2 protein, and other genetically associated Parkinson's disease proteins. Brain tissue was obtained from 17 LRRK2 mutation carriers (12 with the G2019S mutation and five with the I2020T mutation) and assayed by immunoblot. Compared to matched controls and idiopathic Parkinson's disease cases, we found levels of LRRK2 protein were reduced in the LRRK2 mutation cases. We also measured a decrease in two other proteins genetically implicated in Parkinson's disease, the core retromer component, vacuolar protein sorting associated protein 35 (VPS35), and the lysosomal hydrolase, glucocerebrosidase (GBA). Moreover, the classical retromer cargo protein, cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor (MPR300, encoded by IGF2R), was also reduced in the LRRK2 mutation cohort and protein levels of the receptor were correlated to levels of LRRK2. These results provide new data on LRRK2 protein expression in brain tissue from LRRK2 mutation carriers and support a relationship between LRRK2 and retromer dysfunction in LRRK2-associated Parkinson's disease brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zhao
- Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Camperdown, 2050, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, 2033, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, 2031, Australia
| | - Gayathri Perera
- Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Camperdown, 2050, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, 2031, Australia
| | - Junko Takahashi-Fujigasaki
- Department of Neuropathology, Brain Bank for Aging Research, Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric0 Hospital and Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, 173-0015, Japan
| | - Deborah C Mash
- University of Miami Brain Endowment Bank™, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, 33136, USA
| | - Jean Paul G Vonsattel
- New York Brain Bank, Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, 10032, USA
| | - Akiko Uchino
- Department of Neuropathology, Brain Bank for Aging Research, Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric0 Hospital and Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, 173-0015, Japan
| | - Kazuko Hasegawa
- Department of Neurology, Sagamihara National Hospital, Kangawa, 252-0315, Japan
| | - R Jeremy Nichols
- Parkinson’s Institute and Clinical Center, Sunnyvale, California, 94085, USA
| | - Janice L Holton
- Queen Square Brain Bank, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, WC1N 1PJ, UK
| | - Shigeo Murayama
- Department of Neuropathology, Brain Bank for Aging Research, Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric0 Hospital and Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, 173-0015, Japan
| | - Nicolas Dzamko
- Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Camperdown, 2050, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, 2033, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, 2031, Australia
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Camperdown, 2050, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, 2033, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, 2031, Australia
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