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Pinasseau L, Wiest L, Volatier L, Mermillod-Blondin F, Vulliet E. Emerging polar pollutants in groundwater: Potential impact of urban stormwater infiltration practices. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 266:115387. [PMID: 32829126 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The quality of groundwater (GW) resources is decreasing partly due to chemical contaminations from a wide range of activities, such as industrial and agricultural enterprises and changes in land-use. In urban areas, one potential major pathway of GW contamination is associated with urban water management practices based on stormwater runoff infiltration systems (SIS). Data on the performance of the upper layer of soil and the unsaturated zone of infiltration basins to limit the contamination of GW by hydrophilic compounds are lacking. With this aim, the impact of infiltration practices on GW contamination was assessed for 12 pesticides and 4 pharmaceuticals selected according to their ecotoxicological relevance and their likelihood of being present in urban stormwater and GW. For this purpose, 3 campaigns were conducted at 4 SIS during storm events. For each campaign, passive samplers based on the use of Empore™ disk were deployed in GW wells upstream and downstream of SIS, as well as in the stormwater runoff entering the infiltration basins. Upstream and downstream GW contaminations were compared to evaluate the potential effect of SIS on GW contamination and possible relationships with stormwater runoff composition were examined. Our results showed two interesting opposite trends: (i) carbendazim, diuron, fluopyram, imidacloprid and lamotrigine had concentrations significantly increasing in GW impacted by infiltration, indicating a contribution of SIS to GW contamination, (ii) atrazine, simazine and 2 transformation products exhibited concentrations significantly decreasing with infiltration due to a probable dilution of historic GW contaminants with infiltrated stormwater runoff. The other 7 contaminants showed no general trend. This study demonstrates that passive samplers deployed in GW wells enabled the capture of emerging polar pollutants present at very low concentrations and allowed the assessment of infiltration practices on GW quality. New data on GW and urban stormwater are provided for poorly studied hazardous compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Pinasseau
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 Rue de La Doua, F-69100, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Laure Wiest
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 Rue de La Doua, F-69100, Villeurbanne, France.
| | - Laurence Volatier
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR5023 Laboratoire D'Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés (LEHNA), 6 Rue Raphaël Dubois, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Florian Mermillod-Blondin
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR5023 Laboratoire D'Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés (LEHNA), 6 Rue Raphaël Dubois, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Emmanuelle Vulliet
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 Rue de La Doua, F-69100, Villeurbanne, France
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Kwon HA, Jeong Y, Jeon HP, Kim S. Comparing passive dosing and solvent spiking methods to determine the acute toxic effect of pentachlorophenol on Daphnia magna. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2020; 29:286-294. [PMID: 32124145 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-020-02172-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a widespread and persistent hydrophobic organic pollutant in the environment despite its restricted public use. Risk assessment of such hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs) is challenging because sorption and volatilization issues during toxicity test often lead to inconsistent exposure concentration. Considering the hydrophobicity of the PCP, in this study, a passive dosing format was applied by adopting a silicone O-ring as a reservoir and evaluated its applicability on the determination of PCP on Daphnia magna. Results obtained with passive dosing method were compared with that of solvent spiking method. We hypothesized that the passive dosing method may provide more reliable and accurate toxicity results than conventional solvent spiking approach. As a result, the partition coefficient of PCP between methanol and a test medium (log KMeOH:ISO) was 2.1, which enabled the maintenance of reliable exposure concentration throughout the experiment. In the acute toxicity tests, passive dosing and solvent spiking showed similar EC50 values of 576 and 485 µg/L for 24 h, and 362 and 374 µg/L for 48 h, respectively, which overlap with EC50 values of previous studies. Altogether, both methods were suitable for the acute toxicity assessment of hydrophobic PCP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ah Kwon
- Environmental Safety Group, KIST Europe, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Campus E7.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
- Division of Energy & Environment Technology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Korea
| | - Yoonah Jeong
- Environmental Safety Group, KIST Europe, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Campus E7.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
- Institute for Environmental Research, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52076, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Land, Water and Environment Research, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, Daehwa-Dong 283, Goyangdae-Ro, Ilsanseo-Gu, Goyang-Si, Gyeonggi-Do, 10223, Korea
| | - Hyun Pyo Jeon
- Environmental Safety Group, KIST Europe, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Campus E7.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sanghun Kim
- Environmental Safety Group, KIST Europe, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Campus E7.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.
- Division of Energy & Environment Technology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Korea.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Kyungsung University, 309, Suyeong-ro, Nam-gu, Busan, 48434, Korea.
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Pinasseau L, Wiest L, Volatier L, Fones GR, Mills GA, Mermillod-Blondin F, Vulliet E. Calibration and field application of an innovative passive sampler for monitoring groundwater quality. Talanta 2020; 208:120307. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.120307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Pinasseau L, Wiest L, Fildier A, Volatier L, Fones GR, Mills GA, Mermillod-Blondin F, Vulliet E. Use of passive sampling and high resolution mass spectrometry using a suspect screening approach to characterise emerging pollutants in contaminated groundwater and runoff. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 672:253-263. [PMID: 30959292 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater systems are being increasingly used to provide potable and other water supplies. Due to human activities, a range of organic pollutants is often detected in groundwater. One source of groundwater contamination is via stormwater infiltration basins, however, there is little information on the types of compounds present in these collection systems and their influence on the underlying groundwater. We developed an analytical strategy based on the use of passive sampling combined with liquid chromatography/high resolution quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry for screening for the presence of pesticide and pharmaceutical compounds in groundwater and stormwater runoff. Empore™ disk-based passive samplers (SDB-RPS and SDB-XC sorbents) were exposed, using for the first time a new specially designed deployment rig, for 10 days during a rainfall event in five different stormwater infiltration systems around Lyon, France. Stormwater runoff and groundwater (via a well, upstream and downstream of each basin) was sampled. Exposed Empore™ disks were solvent extracted (acetone and methanol) and the extracts analysed using a specific suspect compound screening workflow. High resolution mass spectrometry coupled with a suspect screening approach was found to be a useful tool as it allows a more comprehensive analysis than with targeted screening whilst being less time consuming than non-targeted screening. Using this analytical approach, 101 suspect compounds were tentatively identified, with 40 of this set being subsequently confirmed. The chemicals detected included fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, indicators of human activity, antibiotics, antiepileptics, antihypertensive and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as their metabolites. Polar pesticides were mainly detected in groundwater and pharmaceuticals were more frequently found in runoff. In terms of detection frequency of the pollutants, groundwater impacted by infiltration was found not to be significantly more contaminated than non-impacted groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Pinasseau
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 Rue de la Doua, F-69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Laure Wiest
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 Rue de la Doua, F-69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Aurélie Fildier
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 Rue de la Doua, F-69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Laurence Volatier
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENTPE, Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, UMR 5023, 6 Rue Raphaël Dubois, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Gary R Fones
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Burnaby Road, Portsmouth PO1 3QL, UK
| | - Graham A Mills
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, White Swan Road, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
| | - Florian Mermillod-Blondin
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENTPE, Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, UMR 5023, 6 Rue Raphaël Dubois, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Emmanuelle Vulliet
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 Rue de la Doua, F-69100 Villeurbanne, France.
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Wigh A, Aït-Aïssa S, Creusot N, Terrisse H, Delignette-Muller ML, Bergé A, Vulliet E, Domenjoud B, Gonzalez-Ospina A, Brosselin V, Devaux A, Bony S. Assessment of Ozone or Not-Treated Wastewater Ecotoxicity Using Mechanism-Based and Zebrafish Embryo Bioassays. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.4236/jep.2018.94022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Elbashir AA, Aboul-Enein HY. Application of gas and liquid chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry in pesticides: Multiresidue analysis. Biomed Chromatogr 2017; 32. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.4038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division; National Research Centre; Cairo Egypt
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Wigh A, Geffard O, Abbaci K, Francois A, Noury P, Bergé A, Vulliet E, Domenjoud B, Gonzalez-Ospina A, Bony S, Devaux A. Gammarus fossarum as a sensitive tool to reveal residual toxicity of treated wastewater effluents. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 584-585:1012-1021. [PMID: 28174047 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are one of the main sources of freshwater pollution eventually resulting in adverse effects in aquatic organisms. Treated effluents can contain many micropollutants at concentrations often below the limit of chemical quantification. On a regulatory basis, WWTP effluents have to be non-toxic to the aquatic environment, wherefore not only chemical abatement but also ecotoxicological evaluation through relevant bioassays is required. Standardized bioassays currently used are often not sensitive enough to reveal a residual toxicity in treated effluents. Therefore, attention must be paid to the development of better-adapted approaches implementing more sensitive organisms and relevant endpoints. In this study, the toxicity of two differently treated effluents (activated sludge treated effluents with and without ozonation) towards the ecologically relevant species Gammarus fossarum was evaluated. Organism fitness traits such as reproduction and sperm DNA integrity were followed in exposed organisms. In complement, enzymatic biomarkers were measured indicating the presence of neurotoxic compounds (acetylcholinesterase activity), the presence of pathogens likely to increase the toxic effects of chemical compounds (phenol-oxidase activity), and the presence of toxic compounds inducing detoxification mechanisms (glutathione-S-transferase activity). Enzymatic activities were not modified, but significant sub-lethal effects were observed in exposed organisms. In both effluents, females showed a retarded molt cycle, a reduced fecundity and fertility, and >90% of developed embryos exhibited developmental malformations. In addition, a slight but significant genotoxic effect was measured in gammarid sperm. In a whole, no difference in toxicity was found between both effluents. Coupling reproduction impairment and genotoxicity assessment in Gammarus fossarum seems to be a valuable and sensitive tool to reveal residual toxicity in effluents containing a mixture of micropollutants at very low concentrations. Finally, a direct relationship between the observed toxic responses and the quantified micropollutant concentrations could not be evidenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Wigh
- ENTPE, INRA, CNRS UMR 5023 LEHNA, rue Maurice Audin, 69518 Vaulx-en-Velin Cedex, France
| | - Olivier Geffard
- Irstea - Groupement de Lyon, Unité de recherche Milieux Aquatiques, Ecologie et Pollutions (MAEP), 5 rue de la Doua, 69626 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Khedidja Abbaci
- Irstea - Groupement de Lyon, Unité de recherche Milieux Aquatiques, Ecologie et Pollutions (MAEP), 5 rue de la Doua, 69626 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Adeline Francois
- Irstea - Groupement de Lyon, Unité de recherche Milieux Aquatiques, Ecologie et Pollutions (MAEP), 5 rue de la Doua, 69626 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Patrice Noury
- Irstea - Groupement de Lyon, Unité de recherche Milieux Aquatiques, Ecologie et Pollutions (MAEP), 5 rue de la Doua, 69626 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Alexandre Bergé
- Université de Lyon, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR5280 CNRS, Université Lyon 1, ENS-Lyon, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Emmanuelle Vulliet
- Université de Lyon, Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR5280 CNRS, Université Lyon 1, ENS-Lyon, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Bruno Domenjoud
- SUEZ International - Treatment Infrastructure, Wastewater Technical Division, Degrémont, 183 avenue du 18 juin 1940, 92508 Rueil-Malmaison, France
| | - Adriana Gonzalez-Ospina
- SUEZ International - Treatment Infrastructure, Wastewater Technical Division, Degrémont, 183 avenue du 18 juin 1940, 92508 Rueil-Malmaison, France
| | - Sylvie Bony
- ENTPE, INRA, CNRS UMR 5023 LEHNA, rue Maurice Audin, 69518 Vaulx-en-Velin Cedex, France
| | - Alain Devaux
- ENTPE, INRA, CNRS UMR 5023 LEHNA, rue Maurice Audin, 69518 Vaulx-en-Velin Cedex, France.
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Zhang M, Mao Q, Feng J, Yuan S, Wang Q, Huang D, Zhang J. Validation and application of an analytical method for the determination of selected acidic pharmaceuticals and estrogenic hormones in wastewater and sludge. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2016; 51:914-920. [PMID: 27314419 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2016.1191304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This study was undertaken to develop an extraction method for seven acidic pharmaceuticals and five steroidal estrogens from wastewater, treated wastewater and sludge samples. The temperature and time of sample derivatization using N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide was optimized. Our results show that pretreatment combined with solid phase extraction (SPE) for wastewater samples (using an ENVI-C18 cartridge) and liquid-solid extraction combined with SPE (using an HLB cartridge) for sludge samples increased the analytical efficiency for acidic pharmaceuticals and estrogenic hormones using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The derivatization conditions were optimized at 40°C for 2 h. In addition, the derivatized samples were stable at ambient temperature. The new method was validated and applied to the analysis of real wastewater and discharged sludge samples from a local wastewater treatment plant. Except for 17α-ethinylestradiol, all acidic pharmaceuticals and estrogens were detected in the influent, effluent and discharged sludge samples. The concentrations of these compounds were particularly high in the discharged sludge samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengtao Zhang
- a Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai , China
| | - Qianhui Mao
- b School of Civil Engineering, Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , China
| | - Jingwei Feng
- b School of Civil Engineering, Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , China
| | - Shoujun Yuan
- b School of Civil Engineering, Hefei University of Technology , Hefei , China
| | - Qiquan Wang
- c Department of Chemistry , Delaware State University , Dover , Delaware , USA
| | - Deying Huang
- d Department of Chemistry , Fudan University , Shanghai , China
| | - Jibiao Zhang
- a Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Fudan University , Shanghai , China
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Lopes VSA, Riente RR, da Silva AA, Torquilho DF, Carreira RDS, Marques MRDC. Development of a solid-phase extraction system modified for preconcentration of emerging contaminants in large sample volumes from rivers of the lagoon system in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2016; 110:572-577. [PMID: 27241881 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2016] [Revised: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A single method modified for monitoring of emerging contaminants in river water was developed for large sample volumes. Water samples from rivers of the lagoon system in the city of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) were analyzed by the SPE-HPLC-MS-TOF analytical method. Acetaminophen was detected in four rivers in the concentration range of 0.09μgL(-1) to 0.14μgL(-1). Salicylic acid was also found in the four rivers in the concentration range of 1.65μgL(-1) to 4.81μgL(-1). Bisphenol-A was detected in all rivers in the concentration range of 1.37μgL(-1) to 39.86μgL(-1). Diclofenac was found in only one river, with concentration of 0.22μgL(-1). The levels of emerging organic pollutants in the water samples of the Jacarepaguá hydrographical basin are significant. The compounds are not routinely monitored and present potential risks to environmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitor Sergio Almeida Lopes
- Environmental Technology Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, State University of Rio de Janeiro, 20550-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
| | - Roselene Ribeiro Riente
- Environmental Technology Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, State University of Rio de Janeiro, 20550-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil
| | - Alexsandro Araújo da Silva
- Environmental Technology Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, State University of Rio de Janeiro, 20550-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil
| | - Delma Falcão Torquilho
- Environmental Technology Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, State University of Rio de Janeiro, 20550-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil
| | - Renato da Silva Carreira
- Chemistry Department, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 22451-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil
| | - Mônica Regina da Costa Marques
- Environmental Technology Laboratory, Institute of Chemistry, State University of Rio de Janeiro, 20550-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil
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Postigo C, Barceló D. Synthetic organic compounds and their transformation products in groundwater: occurrence, fate and mitigation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 503-504:32-47. [PMID: 24974362 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater constitutes the main source of public drinking water supply in many regions. Thus, the contamination of groundwater resources by organic chemicals is a matter of growing concern because of its potential effects on public health. The present manuscript compiles the most recent works related to the study of synthetic organic compounds (SOCs) in groundwater, with special focus on the occurrence of contaminants not or barely covered by previously published reviews, e.g., pesticide and pharmaceutical transformation products, lifestyle products, and industrial chemicals such as corrosion inhibitors, brominated and organophosphate flame retardants, plasticizers, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Moreover, the main challenges in managed aquifer recharge, i.e., reclaimed water injection and infiltration, and riverbank filtration, regarding natural attenuation of organic micropollutants are discussed, and insights into the future chemical quality of groundwater are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Postigo
- Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Damià Barceló
- Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Emili Grahit 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
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