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Shelton SA, Kaushal SS, Mayer PM, Shatkay RR, Rippy MA, Grant SB, Newcomer-Johnson TA. Salty chemical cocktails as water quality signatures: Longitudinal trends and breakpoints along different U.S. streams. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 930:172777. [PMID: 38670384 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Along urban streams and rivers, various processes, including road salt application, sewage leaks, and weathering of the built environment, contribute to novel chemical cocktails made up of metals, salts, nutrients, and organic matter. In order to track the impacts of urbanization and management strategies on water quality, we conducted longitudinal stream synoptic (LSS) monitoring in nine watersheds in five major metropolitan areas of the U.S. During each LSS monitoring survey, 10-53 sites were sampled along the flowpath of streams as they flowed along rural to urban gradients. Results demonstrated that major ions derived from salts (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+) and correlated elements (e.g. Sr2+, N, Cu) formed 'salty chemical cocktails' that increased along rural to urban flowpaths. Salty chemical cocktails explained 46.1% of the overall variability in geochemistry among streams and showed distinct typologies, trends, and transitions along flowpaths through metropolitan regions. Multiple linear regression predicted 62.9% of the variance in the salty chemical cocktails using the six following significant drivers (p < 0.05): percent urban land, wastewater treatment plant discharge, mean annual precipitation, percent silicic residual material, percent volcanic material, and percent carbonate residual material. Mean annual precipitation and percent urban area were the most important in the regression, explaining 29.6% and 13.0% of the variance. Different pollution sources (wastewater, road salt, urban runoff) in streams were tracked downstream based on salty chemical cocktails. Streams flowing through stream-floodplain restoration projects and conservation areas with extensive riparian forest buffers did not show longitudinal increases in salty chemical cocktails, suggesting that there could be attenuation via conservation and restoration. Salinization represents a common urban water quality signature and longitudinal patterns of distinct chemical cocktails and ionic mixtures have the potential to track the sources, fate, and transport of different point and nonpoint pollution sources along streams across different regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney A Shelton
- Department of Geology & Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, Geology Building 237, College Park, MD 20742, USA; ORISE Fellow at Pacific Ecological Systems Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 200 SW 35th Street, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA.
| | - Sujay S Kaushal
- Department of Geology & Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, Geology Building 237, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Paul M Mayer
- Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Pacific Ecological Systems Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 200 SW 35th Street, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA.
| | - Ruth R Shatkay
- Department of Geology & Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, Geology Building 237, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - Megan A Rippy
- Occoquan Watershed Monitoring Laboratory, The Charles E. Via Jr Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 9408 Prince William St, Manassas, VA 20110, USA; Center for Coastal Studies, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Stanley B Grant
- Occoquan Watershed Monitoring Laboratory, The Charles E. Via Jr Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 9408 Prince William St, Manassas, VA 20110, USA; Center for Coastal Studies, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Tammy A Newcomer-Johnson
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Watershed and Ecosystem Characterization Division, 26 Martin Luther King Dr W, Cincinnati, OH 45220, USA.
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Swift Bird K, Navarre-Sitchler A, Singha K. Hyporheic Reaction Potential: A Framework for Predicting Reach Scale Solute Fate and Transport. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2024; 11:586-590. [PMID: 38882204 PMCID: PMC11171444 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.4c00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
We develop a new framework, hyporheic reaction potential (HRP), to predict the influence of oxidation-reduction reactions on metal fate and transport in streams using data from tracer studies and geochemical sampling. HRP, with energy flux units [KJ m-2 s-1], is a metric calculated from both the physical and chemical properties of the hyporheic zone. We apply the HRP framework for iron reactions, using existing geochemical and geophysical data from two metal-impacted alpine streams at high and low flow. In these two systems, HRP delineates contrasting controls on iron fate and transport with biogeochemical controls in Mineral Creek and physical controls in Cement Creek. In both systems, HRP scales with discharge and hyporheic-zone extent as flows change seasonally, which demonstrates the ability of HRP to capture physical aspects of chemical reactions in the hyporheic zone. This paper provides a foundation on which HRP can be expanded to other solutes where chemical gradients in the hyporheic zone control reaction networks, making it broadly applicable to redox cycling in stream systems. This framework is useful in quantifying the role of the hyporheic zone in sourcing and storing metal(loid)s under varying hydrologic conditions with implications for water quality, mine remediation, and regional watershed management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Swift Bird
- Hydrologic Science and Engineering Program, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Alexis Navarre-Sitchler
- Hydrologic Science and Engineering Program, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
- Geology and Geological Engineering Department, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Kamini Singha
- Hydrologic Science and Engineering Program, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
- Geology and Geological Engineering Department, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
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Malin JT, Kaushal SS, Mayer PM, Maas CM, Hohman SP, Rippy MA. Longitudinal stream synoptic (LSS) monitoring to evaluate water quality in restored streams. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2024; 196:437. [PMID: 38592553 PMCID: PMC11069387 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-024-12570-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Impervious surface cover increases peak flows and degrades stream health, contributing to a variety of hydrologic, water quality, and ecological symptoms, collectively known as the urban stream syndrome. Strategies to combat the urban stream syndrome often employ engineering approaches to enhance stream-floodplain reconnection, dissipate erosive forces from urban runoff, and enhance contaminant retention, but it is not always clear how effective such practices are or how to monitor for their effectiveness. In this study, we explore applications of longitudinal stream synoptic (LSS) monitoring (an approach where multiple samples are collected along stream flowpaths across both space and time) to narrow this knowledge gap. Specifically, we investigate (1) whether LSS monitoring can be used to detect changes in water chemistry along longitudinal flowpaths in response to stream-floodplain reconnection and (2) what is the scale over which restoration efforts improve stream quality. We present results for four different classes of water quality constituents (carbon, nutrients, salt ions, and metals) across five watersheds with varying degrees of stream-floodplain reconnection. Our work suggests that LSS monitoring can be used to evaluate stream restoration strategies when implemented at meter to kilometer scales. As streams flow through restoration features, concentrations of nutrients, salts, and metals significantly decline (p < 0.05) or remain unchanged. This same pattern is not evident in unrestored streams, where salt ion concentrations (e.g., Na+, Ca2+, K+) significantly increase with increasing impervious cover. When used in concert with statistical approaches like principal component analysis, we find that LSS monitoring reveals changes in entire chemical mixtures (e.g., salts, metals, and nutrients), not just individual water quality constituents. These chemical mixtures are locally responsive to restoration projects, but can be obscured at the watershed scale and overwhelmed during storm events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph T Malin
- Department of Geology & Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA.
- Environmental Quality Resources, L.L.C., 2391 Brandermill Blvd., Suite 301, Gambrills, MD, 21054, USA.
| | - Sujay S Kaushal
- Department of Geology & Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Paul M Mayer
- Environmental Protection Agency, 805 SW Broadway #500, Portland, OR, 97205, USA
| | - Carly M Maas
- Department of Geology & Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
- United States Geological Survey, 1730 E Parham Road, Richmond, VA, 23228, USA
| | - Steven P Hohman
- Environmental Protection Agency, 1650 Arch St, Philadelphia, PA, 19103, USA
| | - Megan A Rippy
- Occoquan Watershed Monitoring Laboratory, The Charles E. Via, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 9408 Prince William Street, Manassas, VA, USA
- Center for Coastal Studies, Virginia Tech, 1068A Derring Hall (0420), Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Disaster Resilience and Risk Management (DRRM), 1068A Derring Hall, 405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
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Liu Y, Wei L, Wu Q, Luo D, Xiao T, Wu Q, Huang X, Liu J, Wang J, Zhang P. Impact of acid mine drainage on groundwater hydrogeochemistry at a pyrite mine (South China): a study using stable isotopes and multivariate statistical analyses. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2023; 45:771-785. [PMID: 35312930 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-022-01242-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Combining environmental isotope analysis with principal component analysis can be an effective method to discriminate the inflows and sources of contamination in mining-affected watersheds. This paper presents a field-scale study conducted at an acid mine drainage (AMD)-contaminated site adjacent to a pyrite mine in South China. Samples of surface water and groundwater were collected to investigate transport in the vadose zone using stable isotopes of oxygen (δ18O) and hydrogen (δD) as environmental tracers. Principal component analysis of hydrogeochemical data was used to identify the probable sources of heavy metals in the AMD. The heavy metal pollution index (HPI) was applied to evaluate the pollution status of heavy metals in the groundwater. The groundwater associated with the Datai reservoir was recharged by atmospheric precipitation and surface water. On the side near the AMD pond, the groundwater was significantly affected by the soluble metals produced by pyrite oxidation. The concentrations of some metals (Al, Mn, and Pb) in all of the samples exceed the desirable limits prescribed by the World Health Organization (Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th edn. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2011). Among them, the concentration of Al is more than 30,000 times higher than the desirable limits prescribed by the World Health Organization (2011), and the concentration of Mn is more than 3000 times higher. The HPI values based on these heavy metal concentrations were found to be 10-1000 times higher than the critical pollution index value of 100. These findings provide a reference and guidance for research on the migration and evolution of heavy metals in vadose zone water in AMD-contaminated areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Linkoping University-Guangzhou University Research Center on Urban Sustainable Development, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Lezhang Wei
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Linkoping University-Guangzhou University Research Center on Urban Sustainable Development, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Qinghua Wu
- Changjiang River Scientific Research Institute, Wuhan, 430010, China
| | - Dinggui Luo
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Tangfu Xiao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Qihang Wu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Xuexia Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Juan Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Jin Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
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Ouhamdouch S. Hydrogeochemical processes in rural coastal aquifer (Haha region, Morocco). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:43975-43990. [PMID: 36670222 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-25450-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In arid and semi-arid regions, groundwater is the principal source of urban and rural water supply. Given that groundwater is the only source of water supply in the Haha region (Moroccan Atlantic coast), the evaluation of this vital resource, using the hydrogeochemical approach, is the main objective of this study. The interpretation of these analytical data showed that the chemical composition of the groundwater is of Ca-Mg-Cl, Na-HCO3, and Na-Cl, with the dominance of the first type. Hydrochemical characteristics using the bivariate diagrams of major (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3-, Cl-, NO3-, and SO42-) and some trace elements (Br- and F-), mineral saturation indices, and statistical analysis show that the water-rock interaction, cation exchange processes, and marine effect are the main processes that control groundwater mineralization. Also, the majority of analyzed samples have concentrations above the thresholds for human consumption fixed by WHO, especially F-, NO3-, K+, Cl-, and HCO3- concentrations. This requires treatment of this groundwater before any consumption and domestic uses. For agricultural uses, the groundwater of the Haha region remains adequate, especially for plants, which can withstand water with electrical conductivity greater than 1000 µS/cm. However, the results obtained can be used as a basis for decision-makers for better water management in the Haha region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salah Ouhamdouch
- Laboratory of GeoSciences Semlalia, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, P.O.B 2390, 40000, Marrakesh, Morocco.
- Environment Management and Civil Engineering Team, Laboratory of Applied Sciences, National School of Applied Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, 32002, Al Hoceima, Morocco.
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Chen D, Chen YP, Lin Y. Heavy Rainfall Events Following the Dry Season Elevate Metal Contamination in Mining-Impacted Rivers: A Case Study of Wenyu River, Qinling, China. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 81:335-345. [PMID: 34213585 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-021-00870-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Heavy metal pollution of a mining-impacted river-the Wenyu River-and a short section of the river it joins, the Luo River, were investigated after heavy rainfall following a dry season in March 2015 and during a normal flow season in May 2015. Water samples were collected during these two periods, and sediment samples were obtained in May as the rain washed out the sediments in March. The results showed the following: (1) The Wenyu River was severely polluted by acid mine drainage from an open-pit molybdenum (Mo) mine, and the major pollutants in the water according to Chinese national standard values were acid (pH), sulfate, Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, and Cd. The major pollutants in the sediment were Cu, Zn, and Cd, as indicated by the geoaccumulation index and potential ecological risk index. (2) The major pollutants in the water were naturally attenuated along the river and met the national standard values after joining the Luo River, except Mn in both water samples and Cd in the samples after rain in March. The major pollutants in the sediments showed an increasing tendency along the Wenyu River and Luo River. (3) The heavy rainfall following the prolonged dry season increased acid and heavy metal contamination in the river, which might be attributed to the dissolution of efflorescent salts and the weathering and erosion of mining residues. Thus, the first heavy rain following a dry season should receive particular attention from mining enterprises and regulators. Several mitigation options and recommendations are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Yi-Ping Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China.
| | - Yishan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China
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Byrne P, Onnis P, Runkel RL, Frau I, Lynch SFL, Edwards P. Critical Shifts in Trace Metal Transport and Remediation Performance under Future Low River Flows. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:15742-15750. [PMID: 33232141 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c04016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Exceptionally low river flows are predicted to become more frequent and more severe across many global regions as a consequence of climate change. Investigations of trace metal transport dynamics across streamflows reveal stark changes in water chemistry, metal transformation processes, and remediation effectiveness under exceptionally low-flow conditions. High spatial resolution hydrological and water quality datasets indicate that metal-rich groundwater will exert a greater control on stream water chemistry and metal concentrations because of climate change. This is because the proportion of stream water sourced from mined areas and mineralized strata will increase under predicted future low-flow scenarios (from 25% under Q45 flow to 66% under Q99 flow in this study). However, mineral speciation modelling indicates that changes in stream pH and hydraulic conditions at low flow will decrease aqueous metal transport and increase sediment metal concentrations by enhancing metal sorption directly to streambed sediments. Solute transport modelling further demonstrates how increases in the importance of metal-rich diffuse groundwater sources at low flow could minimize the benefits of point source metal contamination treatment. Understanding metal transport dynamics under exceptionally low flows, as well as under high flows, is crucial to evaluate ecosystem service provision and remediation effectiveness in watersheds under future climate change scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Byrne
- School of Biological and Environmental Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, U.K
| | - Patrizia Onnis
- School of Biological and Environmental Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, U.K
| | - Robert L Runkel
- U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center, P.O. Box 25046, Mail Stop 415, Denver, Colorado 80225, United States
| | - Ilaria Frau
- School of Biological and Environmental Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, U.K
- Built Environment and Sustainable Technologies (BEST) Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, U.K
| | - Sarah F L Lynch
- AECOM, Ground, Energy & Transactions Solutions (GETS), Bridgewater House, Whitworth Street, Manchester M1 4HD, U.K
| | - Paul Edwards
- Natural Resources Wales, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K
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Li L, Liu H, Li H. Distribution and migration of antimony and other trace elements in a Karstic river system, Southwest China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:28061-28074. [PMID: 30066079 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-2837-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Antimony (Sb) usually occurs associated with arsenic, lead, and other metal elements in sulfide deposits, and most is currently being extracted from the Karst areas, southwest China. In these areas, the acid generated from the oxidative dissolution of sulfide minerals is neutralized by the abundant carbonates but little is known about the effect of this process on the geochemical behavior of Sb and other contaminants. In this study, physicochemical properties (pH, EC) and the trace elements (Sb, As, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sr, etc.) concentrations in waters from mining-impacted Karstic environments were determined in order to determine their distribution and migration potential. It was found that pH values ranged from 6.51 to 9.82, and EC values varied from 369 to 1705 μs·cm-1 in river water samples. Waters of various types such as adit waters, flotation drainage, leaching waters, and river waters all contained high concentrations of dissolved trace elements, reaching up to 5475 μg·L-1Sb, 1877 μg·L-1As, 10,371 μg·L-1Zn, 1309 μg·L-1 Pb, 46 μg·L-1 Cu, and 1757 μg·L-1 Sr. The elevated concentrations of dissolved Sr indicated that Sr could be considered as an indicator of oxidative dissolution of sulfide minerals in the Karst rivers. A proportion of the trace elements were removed in the streams in the vicinity of the mine due to adsorption onto particulate matter, whereas migration of trace elements in the downstream of mine area was attributed to dispersion in dissolved forms. Strontium and Sb have a strong hydrophilicity compared to the other elements analyzed; in contrast, Pb had a high affinity for suspended particulate matter (SPM). It was also found that downstream sediments had elevated concentrations of mining-derived trace elements, but there was a significant decrease in concentration of contaminants in aqueous phase, suggesting that contaminant behavior was conservative in the water-sediment systems under the oxic conditions prevailing in these waters. There was a good correlation between Sb and As in water-SPM-sediment system, indicating that Sb and As are homologous in water environment of the study area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, Guizhou, China.
- Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, Guizhou, China.
| | - Hong Liu
- Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, Guizhou, China
| | - Haixia Li
- College of Politics and Law, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, 030024, Shanxi, China
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