Investigations on the effects of etoxazole in the liver and kidney of Wistar rats

Alleviatory efficacy of achillea millefolium L. in etoxazole-mediated toxicity in allium cepa L

The application of pesticides may adversely impact a variety of non-target organisms. The use of side-effect-free herbal remedies to protect against the toxicity of harmful pesticides such as etoxazole has gained attention in recent times. The current study aimed to reveal the potential mitigating efficacy of Achillea millefolium L. extract against etoxazole toxicity in Allium cepa L. A. cepa bulbs in the control group were applied with tap water, while bulbs in the treatment groups were applied with etoxazole at dose of 0.5 m/L and two different doses of A. millefolium extract (200 mg/L and 400 mg/L). The impact of the treatments on certain parameters was evaluated. The molecular docking analysis was employed to investigate the potential interactions of etoxazole with DNA species, DNA topoisomerases, tubulin proteins, glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase, and protochlorophyllide reductase. The phenolic profile of A. millefolium was assessed. Etoxazole exposure reduced rooting percentage, root length, weight gain, mitotic index, and levels of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Conversely, etoxazole treatment led to an increase in chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei occurrence. The most frequently observed chromosomal aberrations induced by etoxazole, which serve as bioindicators of genotoxicity, were fragment, vagrant chromosome, sticky chromosome, unequal chromatin distribution, bridge, reverse polarization, and vacuolated nucleus. The levels of malondialdehyde and antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase and catalase) activities were also elevated. Epidermis cell damage, flattened cell nucleus, thickened cortex cell wall, and thickened conduction tissue were the meristematic cell disorders triggered by etoxazole. Molecular docking studies showed that etoxazole can interact directly with DNA, tubulins, and the enzymes mentioned above. A. millefolium extract was found to contain a substantial quantity of phenolic compounds. A. millefolium extract, when co-administered with etoxazole, attenuated all toxic effects of etoxazole dose-dependently. In conclusion, A. millefolium may potentially serve as a reliable pharmacological shield against the toxicity of pesticides in non-target organisms.

Butylparaben induced zebrafish (Danio rerio) kidney injury by down-regulating the PI3K-AKT pathway

Butylparaben, a common endocrine disruptor in the environment, is known to be toxic to the reproductive system, heart, and intestines, but its nephrotoxicity has rarely been reported. In order to study the nephrotoxicity and mechanism of butylparaben, we examined the acute and chronic effects on human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293T) and zebrafish. Additionally, we assessed the potential remedial effects of salidroside against butylparaben-induced nephrotoxicity. Our in vitro findings demonstrated oxidative stress and cytotoxicity to HEK293T cells caused by butylparaben. In the zebrafish model, the concentration of butylparaben exposure ranged from 0.5 to 15 μM. An assortment of experimental techniques was employed, including the assessment of kidney tissue morphology using Hematoxylin-Eosin staining, kidney function analysis via fluorescent dextran injection, and gene expression studies related to kidney injury, development, and function. Additionally, butylparaben caused lipid peroxidation in the kidney, thereby damaging glomeruli and renal tubules, which resulted from the downregulation of the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. Furthermore, salidroside ameliorated butylparaben-induced nephrotoxicity through the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. This study reveals the seldom-reported kidney toxicity of butylparaben and the protective effect of salidroside against toxicological reactions related to nephrotoxicity. It offers valuable insights into the risks to kidney health posed by environmental toxins.

In vitro screening of genotoxicity and mutagenicity of pyriproxyfen in human lymphocytes and Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 strains

Pyriproxyfen (PPX) is a pesticide/larvicide used to increase productivity in agriculture against insects by inhibiting development of insects' larvae. In this study, cytotoxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic effects of PPX were investigated in human peripheral lymphocytes and Salmonella typhimurium strains by performing chromosomal aberration, micronucleus (MN) tests, and Ames test, respectively. For the chromosome aberration (CA) and MN methods, blood from four healthy donors (two men and two women, nonsmokers) were used. Two hundred microliters of blood was inoculated into PbMax medium and prepared according to International Guidelines. For the Ames test, S. typhimurium TA98 and TA100 strains were used to detect frameshift and base pair substitution mutagens, respectively. PPX induced both the CA percentage and MN frequency in human peripheral lymphocytes and exhibited cytotoxic effects. In addition, it showed a mutagenic effect at all doses in TA98 and TA100 strains in the presence of S9mix; however, no such effect was observed in the absence of S9mix. According to the obtained results, it can be said that PPX has genotoxic and mutagenic potentials.

Risk assessment of oxidative stress and multiple toxicity induced by Etoxazole

Etoxazole is among the systemic pesticides with acaricidal and insecticidal characteristics. This paper reports the first evaluation of the toxic effects of Etoxazole on Allium cepa L. Etoxazole solutions were applied to three groups formed from A. cepa bulbs at 0.125 mL/L, 0.25 mL/L and 0.5 mL/L doses, respectively. The control group was treated with tap water throughout the experimental period. The toxic effects of Etoxazole became more apparent as the dose of Etoxazole was increased. The growth-limiting effect was most pronounced in the highest dose group with approximately 29%, 70% and 58.5% reductions in germination percentage, root elongation and weight gain, respectively. The genotoxic effect of Etoxazole was most severe in the 0.5 mL/L dose group. In this group, the mitotic index decreased by 30% compared to the control group, while the micronucleus frequency increased to 45.3 ± 3.74. The most observed aberrations were fragment, vagrant chromosome, sticky chromosome, unequal distribution of chromatin, bridge, reverse polarization and nucleus with vacuoles. The malondialdehyde level showed a gradual increase with increasing Etoxazole doses and reached 2.7 times that of the control group in the 0.5 mL/L Etoxazole applied group. Catalase and Superoxide dismutase activities increased in the groups exposed to 0.125 mL/L and 0.25 mL/L Etoxazole with dose dependence and decreased abruptly in the group treated with 0.5 mL/L Etoxazole. Etoxazole triggered meristematic cell damages, such as epidermis cell damage, thickening of cortex cell walls, flattened cell nucleus and indistinct transmission tissue. Considering the versatile toxicity induced by Etoxazole, we announce that this chemical has the potential to cause serious damage to non-target organisms. It should be noted that the higher the dose of exposure, the more severe the level of damage. This study will be an important reminder to limit the indiscriminate use of this highly risky agrochemical.

N-Acetylcysteine Reverses Monocrotophos Exposure-Induced Hepatic Oxidative Damage via Mitigating Apoptosis, Inflammation and Structural Changes in Rats

Oxidative stress-mediated tissue damage is primarily involved in hepatic injuries and dysfunctioning. Natural antioxidants have been shown to exert hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic properties. The present study evaluated the effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) against monocrotophos (MCP) exposure-induced toxicity in the rat liver. Albino Wistar rats were divided into four groups: (1) control, (2) NAC-treated, (3) MCP-exposure, (4) NAC and MCP-coexposure group. The dose of MCP (0.9 mg/kg b.wt) and NAC (200 mg/kg b.wt) were administered orally for 28 days. Exposure to MCP caused a significant increase in lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and decreased glutathione content along with the depletion of antioxidant enzyme activities. Further MCP exposure increased pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and upregulated Bax and Caspase-3 expressions. MCP exposure also caused an array of structural alternations in liver tissue, as depicted by the histological and electron microscopic analysis. Thepretreatment of NAC improved glutathione content, restored antioxidant enzyme activities, prevented oxidation of lipids and proteins, decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and normalized apoptotic protein expression. Treatment of NAC also prevented histological and ultrastructural alternations. Thus, the study represents the therapeutic efficacy and antioxidant potential of NAC against MCP exposure in the rat liver.

Determination of etoxazole in different parts of citrus fruit and its potential dietary exposure risk assessment

In this study, the profile of etoxazole in whole citrus, peel and pulp samples collected from Chongqing, Guangdong and Anhui provinces was monitored and their dietary risk to human had also been assessed. The final residual levels and distributions of etoxazole in citrus samples were detected by using an ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The results showed that final concentrations of etoxazole in whole citrus, peel, and pulp were ranged at 0.012-0.174, 0.010-0.637, and 0.010-0.011 mg kg^-1, respectively. The assessment of dietary risk suggested that chronic dietary risk of etoxazole in whole fruit and peel were 0.010-0.197% and 0.035-0.951%, respectively. Our findings indicated that the chronic risk of daily consumption of citrus fruit is acceptable at recommended dosage.

Etoxazole induces testicular malfunction in mice by dysregulating mitochondrial function and calcium homeostasis

Epidemiological relationships between pesticide use and male infertility have been suggested for a long time. Etoxazole (ETX), an oxazoline pesticide, has been extensively used for pest eradication. It is considered relatively safe and has low mammalian toxicity because it specifically inhibits chitin synthesis. However, ETX may have toxic effects on the reproductive system. In this study, we examined the effects of ETX on the reproductive system using mouse testis cell lines (TM3 for Leydig cells and TM4 for Sertoli cells) and C57BL/6 male mice. We confirmed that ETX has anti-proliferative effects on the TM3 and TM4 cell lines. Moreover, ETX induced mitochondrial dysfunction and hampers calcium homeostasis. Western blot analysis of MAPK and Akt signaling cascades was performed to demonstrate the mode of action of ETX at a molecular level. Moreover, ETX induced misregulation of genes related to testicular function. Upon oral administration of ETX in C57BL/6 male mice, testis weight was reduced and transcriptional expression related to testis function was altered. These results indicate that ETX induces testicular toxicity by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and calcium imbalance and regulating gene expression.

The effects of titanium nanoparticles on enzymatic and non-enzymatic biomarkers in female Wistar rats

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles (NPs) are widely used in industry, pharmacy, medicine, and food sectors. Therefore, this study deals with the effects of TiO₂ NPs in female rats following oral administration in differing doses for 14 days (0, 0.5, 5, and 50 mg/kg b.w./d). The response of enzymatic biomarkers (Na,K-ATPase, Mg-ATPase, and AChE) was measured in the brain, kidney, and small intestine, while non-enzymatic biomarker levels, such as different forms of glutathione (GSH) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSs) were measured in the liver. The images of the tissues were obtained using a transmission electron microscope (TEM) to demonstrate TiO₂ NP accumulation. Data showed that brain AChE activity decreased at all TiO₂ NP doses, though brain ATPase activities increased. However, ATPase activities in the intestine and kidney did not change significantly. Levels of GSH forms did not change significantly, though there was a significant decrease in TBARS level at the highest NP dose. TEM images demonstrated that TiO₂ NPs accumulated in a dose-dependent manner in the tissues. Data emphasized that the brain was the most sensitive organ against the effects of TiO₂ NPs. This study suggests the need for further studies to evaluate better the toxic effects of TiO₂ NPs.

Developmental toxicity and angiogenic defects of etoxazole exposed zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae

Etoxazole, a chitin synthesis inhibitor, is widely used to control insects and mites by causing developmental defects. Despite the many advantages of pesticides, the inhibitory effects of most pesticides including etoxazole are based on biochemical reaction and their widespread application is considered as a major risk to human health and the environment because of bioaccumulation and non-target toxic effects. Though used in agricultural area, the pesticide residues run off through rivers or ocean, where diverse aquatic organisms live. Since there are no studies evaluating the risks of etoxazole exposure in embryogenesis of aquatic organisms, we investigated the adverse effects of etoxazole on development and angiogenesis in zebrafish embryos, which are considered to be an effective model for detecting ecotoxicological effects of widely used compounds, especially affecting aquatic organisms. Etoxazole induced yolk sac and heart edema, as well as loss of viability, abnormal heart rate, and developmental deficiency. Through a mechanistic approach, we also showed that etoxazole caused reactive oxygen species accumulation, inhibited the expression of cell cycle activating genes, and induced apoptosis. In addition, we investigated effects of etoxazole on cardiovascular development by demonstrating the loss of vascular structure in response to etoxazole exposure in fli1:eGFP transgenic zebrafish model. Collectively, this first assessment demonstrating the effects of etoxazole on embryogenesis and cardiovascular development provides clear evidence for the toxicity of etoxazole and contributes important data towards formulating safety guidelines on the potential hazards of etoxazole for aquatic environment.

Responses of biomarkers belonging to different metabolic systems of rats following oral administration of aluminium nanoparticle

Nanoparticle (NP) forms of aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) are used in various fields such as engineering, pharmacy, medicine etc. Compounds containing aluminium oxide NPs may present toxic effects after certain thresholds. Thus, the present study was carried out to determine the effects of Al₂O₃ nanoparticles (Al-NPs) in rats. For this aim, different doses (0, 0.5, 5, 50 mg/kg b.w./day) of Al NP (˜40 nm) were orally administered to female rats (Rattus norvegicus var. albinus) for 14 days and the response of several biomarkers such as activities of ATPases (total ATPase, Na,K-ATPase, Mg-ATPase) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE), levels of different glutathione forms and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were measured in different tissues. Additionally, tissue accumulation of Al-NPs was demonstrated by a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The images showed the presence of Al-NP aggregates in all the tissues at all doses. The sizes of NP aggregates were dependent on NP doses and it was a bit more loose in the brain than in the liver and kidney. AChE activity in the brain decreased significantly at all NP doses, whereas TBARS levels in the liver did not alter significantly at any NP dose. Although there was no significant change in ATPase activities in the intestine at any NP dose, there were significant decreases in the kidney and brain. There were some variations in the levels of total glutathione (tGSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and reduced glutathione (rGSH), though these variations were not significant (P > 0.05). Likewise, the ratio of rGSH/GSSG also did not differ significantly among NP doses and control. The brain seems most affected organ following Al-NP administration. This study demonstrated that most biomarkers in the tissues of rats were affected by Al-NP, showing the signal of toxic effects and suggests further studies to understand better the effects of Al NPs, especially in their use for pharmacology.