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Wu D, Chen L, Ma Z, Zhou D, Fu L, Liu M, Zhang T, Yang J, Zhen Q. Source analysis and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) in total suspended particulate matter (TSP) from Bengbu, China. Sci Rep 2024; 14:5080. [PMID: 38429521 PMCID: PMC10907572 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55695-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in total suspended particulate matter (TSP) samples collected from October, 2021 to September, 2022 were analyzed to clarify the pollution characteristics and sources of 16 PAHs in the atmospheric TSP in Bengbu City. The ρ(PAHs) concentrations ranged from 1.71 to 43.85 ng/m3 and higher concentrations were detected in winter, followed by spring, autumn, and summer. The positive matrix factorization analysis revealed that, in spring and summer, PAH pollution was caused mainly by industrial emissions, gasoline and diesel fuel combustion, whereas in autumn and winter, it was coal, biomass and natural gas combustion. The cluster and potential source factor analyses showed that long-range transport was a significant factor. During spring, autumn, and winter, the northern and northwestern regions had a significant impact, whereas the coastal area south of Bengbu had the greatest influence in summer. The health risk assessment revealed that the annual total carcinogenic equivalent concentration values for PAHs varied from 0.0159 to 7.437 ng/m3, which was classified as moderate. Furthermore, the annual incremental lifetime cancer risk values ranged from 1.431 × 10-4 to 3.671 × 10-3 for adults and from 6.823 × 10-5 to 1.749 × 10-3 for children, which were higher than the standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danchen Wu
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
| | - Liu Chen
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhijing Ma
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
| | - Dalin Zhou
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
| | - Le Fu
- School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengmeng Liu
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
- Fuyang Cancer Hospital, Fuyang, 236010, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianer Zhang
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
- Xinchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Xinchang, 312599, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Yang
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China
| | - Quan Zhen
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233030, People's Republic of China.
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Li Q, Zeng Y, Fan Y, Fu S, Guan Y, Sun Y, Chen S. PM-bound polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) in two large-scale petrochemical bases in South China: Spatial variations, sources, and risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:60994-61004. [PMID: 37042915 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26477-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) are potential pollutants emitted from the petrochemical industry, whereas their occurrence and sources in petrochemical regions are still poorly known. The present study revealed the spatial variations, compositional profiles, sources and contributions, and health risks of PM-bound PACs in two large-scale petrochemical bases (GDPB and HNPB) in South China. The concentrations of parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were 7.14 ± 3.16 ng/m3 for ∑18PAHs and 0.608 ± 0.294 ng/m3 for the PAHs with molecular weight of 302 amu (MW302 PAHs) in the GDPB base and 2.55 ± 1.26 ng/m3 and 0.189 ± 0.088 ng/m3 in the HNPB base. Oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs) showed comparable concentrations to the parent PAHs in both the bases and nitrated PAHs (NPAHs) had the lowest mean levels (260 pg/m3 and 59.4 pg/m3 in the two regions). Coronene, 2,8-dinitrodibenzothiophene, and dibenzo[a,e]fluoranthene showed remarkably higher contributions to the PAC and can be PAC markers of the petrochemical industry source. Five sources of PACs were identified respectively in both petrochemical bases by the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model. The vehicle (and ship) traffic exhaust was the primary source of PACs (contributed 33% to the ∑PACs), and the sources related to the coking of coal and heavy petroleum and refinery exhaust were identified in both bases, with contributions of 10-20%. PACs in GDPB also contributed from secondary atmospheric reactions (17.3%) and the usage of sulfur-containing fuels (20.9%), while the aromatics industry made a significant contribution (20.1%) to the PACs in the HNPB region. The cumulative incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCRs) induced by inhalation of PM-bound PACs in both petrochemical bases were low (10-8-10-6). For the sources related to the petrochemical industry, coking activities and the aromatic industry were the significant contributors to the ∑ILCRs in GDPB and HNPB, respectively. This research has implications for further source-targeted control and health risk reduction of PACs in petrochemical regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiqi Li
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yuan Zeng
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Yun Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Siqi Fu
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yufeng Guan
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yuxin Sun
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Shejun Chen
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
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Villasclaras P, Jaén C, van Drooge BL, Grimalt JO, Tauler R, Bedia C. Phenotypic and Metabolomic Characterization of 3D Lung Cell Cultures Exposed to Airborne Particulate Matter from Three Air Quality Network Stations in Catalonia. TOXICS 2022; 10:632. [PMID: 36355924 PMCID: PMC9695742 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10110632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Air pollution constitutes an environmental problem that it is known to cause many serious adverse effects on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The chemical characterization of particulate matter (PM) is key for a better understanding of the associations between chemistry and toxicological effects. In this work, the chemical composition and biological effects of fifteen PM10 air filter samples from three air quality stations in Catalonia with contrasting air quality backgrounds were investigated. Three-dimensional (3D) lung cancer cell cultures were exposed to these sample extracts, and cytotoxicity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) induction, metabolomics, and lipidomics were explored. The factor analysis method Multivariate Curve Resolution-Alternating Least-Squares (MCR-ALS) was employed for an integrated interpretation of the associations between chemical composition and biological effects, which could be related to urban traffic emission, biomass burning smoke, and secondary aerosols. In this pilot study, a novel strategy combining new approach methodologies and chemometrics provided new insights into the biomolecular changes in lung cells associated with different sources of air pollution. This approach can be applied in further research on air pollution toxicity to improve our understanding of the causality between chemistry and its effects.
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Zhang J, Feng L, Zhao Y, Hou C, Gu Q. Health risks of PM 2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and heavy metals (PPAH&HM) during the replacement of central heating with urban natural gas in Tianjin, China. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2022; 44:2495-2514. [PMID: 34291374 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-021-01040-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the health effects of fine particulate matter (≤ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter; PM2.5)-bound heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) before and after the implementation of the Urban Natural Gas Heating Project (UNGHP), the lifetime cancer risks, hazard quotients (HQs) of heavy metals and PAHs were calculated. Seven kinds of heavy metals (Al, As, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni and Se) and 12 kinds of PAHs including acenaphthylene (ANY), acenaphthene (ANA), fluoranthene (FLT), pyrene (PYR), chrysene (CHR), benz[a]anthracene (BaA), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DBA), benzo[ghi]perylene (BPE) and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IPY) were analyzed and used for the health risk assessments. It was found that HQ of Mn fell from 1.09 in the coal-burning period to 0.72 in the gas-burning period in the suburban area. And lifetime cancer risks of PAHs fell from 35.7 × 10-6 in the coal-burning period to 17.22 × 10-6 in the gas-burning period in the urban area. It could be concluded that, during the gas-burning period, downward trends were observed for the lifetime cancer risks and HQs of most kinds of heavy metals and PAHs in all regions of Tianjin compared to those during the coal-burning period. The UNGHP was effective, and we should also take other measures to control the pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwei Zhang
- Department of Environment and Health, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, No.6 Huayue Rd, Tianjin, China
| | - Lihong Feng
- Department of Environment and Health, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, No.6 Huayue Rd, Tianjin, China
| | - Yan Zhao
- Department of Environment and Health, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, No.6 Huayue Rd, Tianjin, China
| | - Changchun Hou
- Department of Environment and Health, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, No.6 Huayue Rd, Tianjin, China
| | - Qing Gu
- Department of Environment and Health, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, No.6 Huayue Rd, Tianjin, China.
- School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, No.22 Qixiangtai Rd, Tianjin, China.
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Zhang L, Yang G. Cluster analysis of PM 2.5 pollution in China using the frequent itemset clustering approach. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 204:112009. [PMID: 34534521 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, severe air pollution has frequently occurred in China at the regional scale. The clustering method to define joint control regions is an effective approach to address severe regional air pollution. However, current cluster analysis research on the determination of joint control areas relies on the Pearson correlation coefficient as a similarity measure. Due to nonlinearity and outliers in air pollution data, the correlation coefficient cannot accurately reveal the similarity in air quality between different cities. To bridge this gap, we proposed a method to delineate spatial patterns of PM2.5 pollution and regional boundaries of polluted areas using the frequent itemset clustering approach. The frequent itemsets between cities were first mined, and the support values were employed as interestingness metrics to describe the significance of similar variation patterns between cities. Then, the hierarchical clustering method was applied to identify appropriate areas for joint pollution control. The proposed clustering algorithm exhibits the advantages of not requiring model assumptions and a robustness to the outliers, which is a cost-effective approach to define joint control regions. By analysing urban PM2.5 pollution in China from 2015 to 2018, we obtained results demonstrating that the frequent itemset clustering approach can efficiently determine pollution patterns and can effectively identify regional divisions. The clustering approach could facilitate a greater understanding of PM2.5 spatiotemporal aggregation to design joint control measures among areas. The findings and methodology of this research have important implications for the formulation of clean air policies in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liankui Zhang
- Institute of Systems Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Guangfei Yang
- Institute of Systems Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China.
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Li P, Guo X, Jing J, Hu W, Wei WQ, Qi X, Zhuang G. The lag effect of exposure to PM 2.5 on esophageal cancer in urban-rural areas across China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:4390-4400. [PMID: 34406566 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15942-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to PM2.5 pollution is a significant health concern and increases risks for cancers in China. However, the studies regarding the effect of PM2.5 and esophageal cancer incidence (ECI) among urban-rural areas are limited. In this study, we examined the sex- and area-specific association between exposure to PM2.5 and ECI, as well as explored the corresponding lag effects on ECI using a geographical weighted Poisson regression. We found significantly positive effect on ECI for males and females in different models, with the greatest increase of 1.44% (95% CI: 1.30%, 1.59%) and 2.42% (95% CI: 2.17%, 2.66%) in per 10 ug/m3 increase of PM2.5 for males and females at single year lag7 and lag4 after all covariates controlled, respectively. We also found that the long-term effect of PM2.5 on ECI was relatively stable at all moving average year lags. Moreover, rural areas had higher ECI risks for males (0.17%) and females (0.64%) with longer lag period than urban areas. In addition, higher risks for both sexes appeared in north, northwestern, and east China. The findings indicated that long-term exposure to PM2.5 was significantly associated with increased risks for ECI, which reinforce a comprehensive understanding for ECI related to PM2.5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710061, China
| | - Xiya Guo
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710061, China
| | - Jing Jing
- College of Geography and Environment, Baoji University of Arts and Sciences, Baoji, Shaanxi, 721013, China
| | - Wenbiao Hu
- School of Public Health and Social Work, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, QLD, 4059, Australia
| | - Wen-Qiang Wei
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Xin Qi
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710061, China.
| | - Guihua Zhuang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710061, China.
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Wang W, Ding X, Turap Y, Tursun Y, Abulizi A, Wang X, Shao L, Talifu D, An J, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Liu H. Distribution, sources, risks, and vitro DNA oxidative damage of PM 2.5-bound atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Urumqi, NW China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 739:139518. [PMID: 32534306 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Research has focused on the impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere due to their potential carcinogenicity. In this study, we investigated the seasonal variation, sources, incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCRS), and vitro DNA oxidative damage of PAHs in Urumqi in NW China. A total of 72 atmospheric samples from Urumqi were collected over a year (September 2017-September 2018) and were analyzed for 16 PAHs that are specifically prioritized by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (U·S EPA). The highest PAHs concentrations were in winter (1032.66 ng m-3) and lowest in spring (146.00 ng m-3). Middle molecular weight PAHs with four rings were the most abundant species (45.28-61.19% of the total). The results of the diagnostic ratio and positive matrix factorization inferred that the major sources of atmospheric PAHs in Urumqi were biomass burning, coking, and petrogenic sources (52.9%), traffic (30.1%), coal combustion (8.9%), and the plastics recycling industry (8.1%). ILCRS assessment and Monte Carlo simulations suggested that for all age groups PAHs cancer risks were mainly associated with ingestion and dermal contact and inhalation was negligible. The plasmid scission assay results showed a positive dose-response relationship between PAHs concentrations and DNA damage rates, demonstrating that toxic PAHs was the primary cause for PM2.5-induced DNA damage in the air of Urumqi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Xiang Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China.
| | - Yusan Turap
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Yalkunjan Tursun
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Abulikemu Abulizi
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Xingming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Longyi Shao
- College of Geosciences and Survey Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Dilinuer Talifu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China.
| | - Juqin An
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Yuanyu Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Huibin Liu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineer, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
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Spatio-Temporal Variations of Satellite-Based PM 2.5 Concentrations and Its Determinants in Xinjiang, Northwest of China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17062157. [PMID: 32213893 PMCID: PMC7143496 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17062157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
With the aggravation of air pollution in recent years, a great deal of research on haze episodes is mainly concentrated on the east-central China. However, fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution in northwest China has rarely been discussed. To fill this gap, based on the standard deviational ellipse analysis and spatial autocorrelation statistics method, we explored the spatio-temporal variation and aggregation characteristics of PM2.5 concentrations in Xinjiang from 2001 to 2016. The result showed that annual average PM2.5 concentration was high both in the north slope of Tianshan Mountain and the western Tarim Basin. Furthermore, PM2.5 concentrations on the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountain increased significantly, while showing an obviously decrease in the western Tarim Basin during the period of 2001–2016. Based on the result of the geographical detector method (GDM), population density was the most dominant factor of the spatial distribution of PM2.5 concentrations (q = 0.550), followed by road network density (q = 0.423) and GDP density (q = 0.413). During the study period (2001–2016), the driving force of population density on the distribution of PM2.5 concentrations showed a gradual downward trend. However, other determinants, like DEM (Digital elevation model), NSL (Nighttime stable light), LCT (Land cover type), and NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index), show significant increased trends. Therefore, further effort is required to reveal the role of landform and vegetation in the spatio-temporal variations of PM2.5 concentrations. Moreover, the local government should take effective measures to control urban sprawl while accelerating economic development.
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Liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry for analysis of DNA damages induced by environmental exposure. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2019.115645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Volatile Organic Compounds in a Petrochemical Region in Arid of NW China: Chemical Reactivity and Source Apportionment. ATMOSPHERE 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos10110641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We measured volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during the heating, non-heating, and sandstorm periods in the air of the Dushanzi district in NW China and investigated their concentrations, chemical reactivity, and sources. The observed concentrations of total VOCs (TVOCs) were 22.35 ± 17.60, 33.20 ± 34.15, and 17.05 ± 13.61 ppbv in non-heating, heating, and sandstorm periods, respectively. C2-C5 alkanes, C2-C3 alkenes, benzene, and toluene were the most abundant species, contributing more than 60% of the TVOCs. Among these VOCs, alkenes such as propene had the highest chemical reactivity, accounting for more than 60% of total hydroxyl radical loss rate (LOH) and ozone formation potential (OFP). Chemical reactivity was the highest in the heating period. The average reaction rate constant (KOH-avg) and average maximum incremental reactivity coefficient (MIR-avg) of the total observed VOCs were (8.72 ± 1.42) × 10−12 cm3/mol∙s and 2.42 ± 0.16 mol/mol, respectively. The results of the source apportionment via the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model showed that coal combustion (43.08%) and industrial processes (38.86%) were the major sources of VOCs in the air of the Dushanzi district. The contribution of coal combustion to VOCs was the highest in the heating period, while that of industrial solvents and oil volatilization was the lowest.
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