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El-Sayed IM, Salama WH, Badr MA. Nitrogen and spent coffee ground for enhancing nutritional, morphological, flowering and antioxidant properties of Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morfolium Ramat). PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2024; 207:108406. [PMID: 38309182 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2024.108406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
Chrysanthemum is one of the most attractive flowering plants widely grown commercially worldwide. Having a good source of organic fertilizers plays an important role in meeting the increasing demand for these plants, which requires high-quality flowers and a high survival time for the longest period. The effect of nitrogen (N) coupled with spent coffee ground (SCG) at various levels (0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0°% w/w) was evaluated on growth performance and chemical components of the Chrysanthemum over two years in a pot scale. Overall, total dry matter (TDM) was significantly enhanced with N+ by 125 and 97°% over N- in the first and second years, respectively. SCG also enhanced TDM up to the highest level of application in the range of 27-98°% and 18-81°% over SCG (0.0°%) in the same years, respectively. The interaction effect between N and SCG was perfect on TDM, flower number, and flower dry weight. Similarly, total antioxidant activities when N and SCG were coupled together gave respective increments ranging from 11.8 to 45.9 U/g DW and from 2.1 to 15.9 U/g DW compared to N alone (5.8 and 0.9 U/g DW) in both leaves and flowers, respectively. Extracts of plant treated with N and 10°% SCG exhibited a higher content of rosmarinic, caffeic, chlorogenic, vanillic acids, and rutin in the leaves. SCG as a natural organic source is easy to obtain and is a practical and cost-effective solution to plant nutrition, which can be valuable for ornamental plants, especially when combined with nitrogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman M El-Sayed
- Ornamental Plants and Woody Trees Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Walaa H Salama
- Molecular Biology Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - M A Badr
- Plant Nutrition Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt.
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2
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Lee KT, Shih YT, Rajendran S, Park YK, Chen WH. Spent coffee ground torrefaction for waste remediation and valorization. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 324:121330. [PMID: 36841419 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Spent coffee grounds (SCGs) are a noticeable waste that may cause environmental pollution problems if not treated appropriately. Torrefaction is a promising low-temperature carbonization technique to achieve waste remediation, recovery, and circular bioeconomy efficiently. This study aims to maximize lipids retained in thermally degraded SCGs, thereby upgrading their fuel quality to implement resource sustainability and availability. This work also analyzes the lipid contribution to biochar's calorific value under various carbonization temperatures and times. Torrefaction can retain 11-15 wt% lipids from SCG, but the lipid content decreases when the pyrolysis temperature is higher than 300 °C. Extracted lipid content consisting of fatty acids echoed the results of diesel adsorption capacity. The lipid content in the biochar from SCG torrefied at 300 °C for 30 min is 11.00 wt%, and its HHV is 28.16 MJ kg-1. In this biochar, lipids contribute about 14.84% of the calorific value, and the other carbonized solid contributes 85.16%. On account of the higher lipid content in the biochar, it has the highest diesel adsorption amount per unit mass, with a value of 1.66 g g-1. This value accounts for a 22.1% improvement compared to its untorrefied SCG. Accordingly, torrefaction can sufficiently remediate SCG-derived environmental pollution. The produced biochar can become a spilled oil adsorbent. Furthermore, oil-adsorbed biochar (oilchar) is a potential solid fuel. In summary, SCG torrefaction can simultaneously achieve pollution remediation, waste valorization, resource sustainability, and circular bioeconomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Ting Lee
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Tse Shih
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan
| | - Saravanan Rajendran
- Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Tarapacá, Avda. General Velásquez, 1775, Arica, Chile
| | - Young-Kwon Park
- School of Environmental Engineering, University of Seoul, Seoul, 02504, Republic of Korea
| | - Wei-Hsin Chen
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan; Research Center for Smart Sustainable Circular Economy, Tunghai University, Taichung, 407, Taiwan; Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taichung, 411, Taiwan.
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3
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Data-Driven Optimal Design of a CHP Plant for a Hospital Building: Highlights on the Role of Biogas and Energy Storages on the Performance. ENERGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/en15030858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Combined heat and power (CHP) generation plants are an assessed valuable solution to significantly reduce primary energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. Nevertheless, the primary energy saving (PES) and CO2 reduction potentials of this solution are strictly related to the accurate definition and management of thermal and electric loads. Data-driven analysis could represent a significant contribution for optimizing the CHP plant design and operation and then to fully deploy this potential. In this paper, the use of a bi-level optimization approach for the design of a CHP is applied to a real application (a large Italian hospital in Rome). Based on historical data of the hospital thermal and electric demand, clustering analysis is applied to identify a limited number of load patterns representative of the annual load. These selected patterns are then used as input data in the design procedure. A Mixed Integer Linear Programming coupled with a Genetic Algorithm is implemented to optimize the energy dispatch and size of the CHP plant, respectively, with the aim of maximizing the PES while minimizing total costs and carbon emissions. Finally, the effects of integrating biogas from the Anaerobic Digestion (AD) of the Spent Coffee Ground (SCG) and Energy Storage (ES) technologies are investigated. The results achieved provide a benchmark for the application of these technologies in this specific field, highlighting performances and benefits with respect to traditional approaches. The effective design of the CHP unit allows for achieving CO2 reduction in the order of 10%, ensuring economic savings (up to 40%), when compared with a baseline configuration where no CHP is installed. Further environmental benefits can be achieved by means of the integration of AD and ES pushing the CO2 savings up to 20%, still keeping the economical convenience of the capital investment.
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Atabani AE, Ali I, Naqvi SR, Badruddin IA, Aslam M, Mahmoud E, Almomani F, Juchelková D, Atelge MR, Khan TMY. A state-of-the-art review on spent coffee ground (SCG) pyrolysis for future biorefinery. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 286:131730. [PMID: 34364231 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Coffee is a globally consumed beverage that produces a substantial amount of valuable organic waste known as spent coffee grounds (SCG). Although SCG is a non-edible biomass, research initiatives focused on valorizing/utilizing its organic content, protecting the environment, and reducing the high oxygen demand required for its natural degradation. The integration with biorefinery in general and with pyrolysis process in specific is considerered the most successful solid waste management strategy of SCG that produce energy and high-value products. This paper aims at providing a quantitative analysis and discussion of research work done over the last 20 years on SCG as a feedstock in the circular bioeconomy (CBE). Management stratigies of SCG have been thoroughly reviewed and pyrolysis process has been explored as a novel technology in CBE. Results revealed that explored articles belong to Chemical, physical., biological and environmental science branches, with Energy & Fuels as the most reporting themes. Published works correlate SCG to renewable energy, biofuel, and bio-oil, with pyrolysis as a potential valorization approach. Literature review showed that only one study focused on the pyrolysis of defatted spent coffee grounds (DSCG). The insightful conclusions of this paper could assist in proposing several paths to more economically valorization of SCG through biorefinery, where extracted oil can be converted to biofuels or value-added goods. It was highlighted the importance of focusing on the coupling of SCG with CBE as solid waste managment strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E Atabani
- Alternative Fuels Research Laboratory (AFRL), Energy Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, 38039, Kayseri, Turkey.
| | - Imtiaz Ali
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Salman Raza Naqvi
- School of Chemical & Materials Engineering, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Irfan Anjum Badruddin
- Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 394, Abha, 61421, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Aslam
- Department of Chemical Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Eyas Mahmoud
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Fares Almomani
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Dagmar Juchelková
- Department of Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, VŠB - Technical University of Ostrava, 17. Listopadu 15/2172, 708 00, Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
| | - M R Atelge
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Siirt University, 56100, Siirt, Turkey
| | - T M Yunus Khan
- Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 394, Abha, 61421, Saudi Arabia
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Abstract
With increasing coffee production and consumption, the amount of coffee by-product is also increasing. Therefore, there is growing worldwide interest in using these by-products as a renewable energy source. In this study, hydrothermal carbonization was conducted with subcritical water to improve the fuel characteristics of spent coffee grounds. The water content was varied, with the mass ratio between the dry sample and water set to 1:1.5 and 1:4. The reaction temperature was increased by 10 °C from 180 to 250 °C. The fuel and thermal characteristics of the reaction products were investigated through mass and energy yields, elemental, proximate, and heating value analysis. In analysis results, as the reaction temperature increased, carbon and fixed carbon content increased, and oxygen and volatile matter content decreased, resulting in an increase in calorific value. Thermogravimetric analysis, derivative thermogravimetry, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were also conducted on the reaction products. To investigate their storage characteristics, chemical oxygen demand analysis was conducted. The results showed that with increasing reaction temperature, the fixed carbon content and heating value increased; also, the fuel characteristics became similar to those of coal. In addition, the reaction products became more hydrophobic as the reaction temperature increased.
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Chrysargyris A, Antoniou O, Xylia P, Petropoulos S, Tzortzakis N. The use of spent coffee grounds in growing media for the production of Brassica seedlings in nurseries. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:24279-24290. [PMID: 32026184 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-07944-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Large quantities of spent coffee grounds (SCG) are generated the last decades, and their recycling is of research interest challenge. In the present study, SCG was tested to substitute peat (P) in substrate mixtures for the production of Brassica seedlings. Seeds of cauliflower, broccoli, and cabbage were placed in substrate mixtures containing 0-2.5-5-10% SCG. The mixture of SCG with peat affected several physicochemical characteristics of the growing media, providing also considerable amount of mineral elements for the seedling growth needs. Seed emergence was stimulated in 2.5-5% of SCG for cauliflower and at 2.5% of SCG for cabbage, while 10% of SCG decreased the percentage and increased the mean emergence time of the examined species. Plant biomass and leaf number were increased at 2.5% SCG for broccoli and cabbage but maintained at cauliflower when compared with control. The SCG at 10% decreased stomatal conductance of broccoli and cabbage (including 2.5-5% SCG in cauliflower) while chlorophyll content was increased at 10% of SCG media. The incorporation of SCG impacted the mineral content accumulated in plants with increases in nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus and decreases in magnesium and iron content. Total phenolics and antioxidant activity (DPPH, FRAP) decreased at ≥ 5% SCG at cauliflower and cabbage or unchanged for broccoli when compared with the control. The cabbage seedlings grown in 10% SCG media subjected to stress with increases in the production of hydrogen peroxides and lipid peroxidation, and reflected changes in the antioxidant enzymatic metabolism (catalase, superoxide dismutase). The present study demonstrates that SCG (up to 5%) can be used for seed germination biostimulants and/or partially substitute the peat for Brassica seedling production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonios Chrysargyris
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology and Food Science, Cyprus University of Technology, 3603, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Omiros Antoniou
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology and Food Science, Cyprus University of Technology, 3603, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Panayiota Xylia
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology and Food Science, Cyprus University of Technology, 3603, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Spyridon Petropoulos
- Department of Agriculture, Crop Production and Rural Environment, University of Thessaly, 38446, N. Ionia, Magnissia, Greece
| | - Nikos Tzortzakis
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology and Food Science, Cyprus University of Technology, 3603, Limassol, Cyprus.
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Study of Influential Parameters of the Caffeine Extraction from Spent Coffee Grounds: From Brewing Coffee Method to the Waste Treatment Conditions. CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/cleantechnol3020019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
This article aims to study the interest of spent coffee grounds (SCG) valorization through caffeine recovery. In an original way, this study takes into account all the parameters such as (i) the brewing coffee methods (household, coffee shops, etc.); (ii) the storage conditions, in particular the drying step; (iii) the solid/liquid extraction parameters such as the nature of solvent, the temperature, the extraction time and the solid/liquid ratio; and (iv) the liquid/liquid purification parameters such as the nature, the volume and the pH of extraction medium. Results have shown that spent coffee grounds from coffee-shops obtained by percolation contain a higher amount of caffeine than spent coffee grounds from households obtained from spent pods or filters. A drying treatment is not required when extraction is performed under one week after the spent coffee grounds collection with 96.4% of not degraded caffeine. Solid/liquid extraction performed with 25 mL.g−1 SCG of hydroalcoholic solvent (water/EtOH, v/v 60/40) at 60 °C during 15 min have given a caffeine yield up to 4.67 mg.g−1 SCG. When using ethyl acetate, 93.4% of the caffeine has been selectively recovered by liquid/liquid extraction. Finally, the extraction of caffeine for the valorization of spent coffee grounds is a promising and easy way, which fits with an already important and well established market.
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Dattatraya Saratale G, Bhosale R, Shobana S, Banu JR, Pugazhendhi A, Mahmoud E, Sirohi R, Kant Bhatia S, Atabani AE, Mulone V, Yoon JJ, Seung Shin H, Kumar G. A review on valorization of spent coffee grounds (SCG) towards biopolymers and biocatalysts production. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 314:123800. [PMID: 32684320 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Spent coffee grounds (SCG) are an important waste product millions of tons generated from coffee consumption and could be effectively utilized for various applications due to their high organic content. SCG can be used as a potential feedstock to develop coffee-based biorefinery towards value-added products generation through various biotechnological processes. Considerable developments have been reported on emerging SCG-based processes/products in various environmental fields such as removal of heavy metals and cationic dyes and in wastewater treatment. In addition, SCG are also utilized to produce biochar and biofuels. This review addressed the details of innovative processes used to produce polymers and catalysts from SCG. Moreover, the application of these developed products is provided and future directions of the circular economy for SCG utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganesh Dattatraya Saratale
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Rahul Bhosale
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qatar University, P. O. Box e 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Sutha Shobana
- Department of Chemistry and Research Centre, Mohamed Sathak Engineering College, Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - J Rajesh Banu
- Department of Life Sciences, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Neelakudi, Thiruvarur, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Arivalagan Pugazhendhi
- Innovative Green Product Synthesis and Renewable Environment Development Research Group, Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Eyas Mahmoud
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, PO Box: 15551, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ranjna Sirohi
- Department of Postharvest Process and Food Engineering GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Pantnagar, 263145, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Shashi Kant Bhatia
- Department of Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - A E Atabani
- Alternative Fuels Research Laboratory (AFRL), Energy Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Vincenzo Mulone
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy
| | - Jeong-Jun Yoon
- Green & Sustainable Materials R&D Department, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology (KITECH), Chungnam 330-825, Republic of Korea
| | - Han Seung Shin
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Gopalakrishnan Kumar
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea.
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Roadmapping as a Driver for Knowledge Creation: A Proposal for Improving Sustainable Practices in the Coffee Supply Chain from Chiapas, Mexico, Using Emerging Technologies. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12145817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Technologies are essential for productive sectors to increase competitiveness and improve sustainable development. However, the technology benefits present a great delay in adoption in agricultural sectors, due to discrepancies between scientific research and local needs. This article presents a study for improving sustainability practices in the coffee supply chain, using emerging technologies, of two localities in the Frailesca region from Chiapas, Mexico, based on the current situation, expectations and actions expressed by 165 coffee producers and 12 representatives of two coffee producers’ organizations. Based on Mentzer theoretical support, the technology roadmaps, knowledge management and digital compass were used to draw coffee supply chain processes to identify concrete actions and explore technologies. The results show that the technological route must be focused on renewing and improving coffee quality, getting quality certifications and access to specialized markets. Digital quality management and advanced statistical process control seem to be the appropriate emerging technologies for enhancing the acquisition of resistant varieties, proper pest management, improvement in the collection of coffee beans, the right time and way to plant a coffee plant, soil analysis and for the management of weeds and water conservation and harvesting as sustainable practices in this region. In addition, statistical correlation showed that digital technologies can be better adopted, on average, by producers with 4–6 family members, aged between 40–44 years and without additional crops. The findings propose sustainable practices linked with emerging technologies, based on a technology roadmap and knowledge management methodologies for this region.
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Hasnol S, Lim JW, Wong CY, Lam MK, Ntwampe SKO. Liminal presence of exo-microbes inoculating coconut endosperm waste to enhance black soldier fly larval protein and lipid. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:24574-24581. [PMID: 32350833 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-09034-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The anaerobic decomposition of coconut endosperm waste (CEW), residue derived from cooking, has been insidiously spewing greenhouse gasses. Thus, the bioconversion of CEW via in situ fermentation by exo-microbes from commercial Rid-X and subsequent valorization by black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) was the primary objective of the current study to gain sustainable larval lipid and protein. Accordingly, various concentrations of exo-microbes were separately homogenized with CEW to perform fermentation amidst feeding to BSFL. It was found that 2.50% of exo-microbes was the threshold amount entailed to assuage competition between exo-microbes and BSFL for common nutrients. The presence of remnant nutrients exuded from the fermentation using 2.50% of exo-microbes was confirmed to promote BSFL growth measured as maximum larval weight gained and growth rate. Although the BSFL could accumulate the highest protein (16 mg/larva) upon feeding with CEW containing 2.50% of exo-microbes, more lipid (13 mg/larva) was stored in employing 0.10% of exo-microbes because of minimum loss to metabolic processes while prolonging the BSFL in its 5th instar stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Hasnol
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, HICoE-Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
| | - Jun Wei Lim
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, HICoE-Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia.
| | - Chung Yiin Wong
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, HICoE-Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
| | - Man Kee Lam
- Department of Chemical Engineering, HICoE-Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
| | - Seteno K O Ntwampe
- School of Chemical and Minerals Engineering, North-West University, Private Bag X1290, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
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