Ginkgo biloba mitigates silver nanoparticles-induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar rats via improvement of mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant status

The Role of Phthalocyanine-Gold Nanoconjugates (Pc-Au NCs) in Ameliorating the Hepatic and Renal Toxicity-Induced by Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in Male Rats

Recently, gold nanoparticles (Au Nps) have gained tremendous attention for its unique properties as a safe nanocarrier for delivering drugs that are used in different disease diagnoses. Although silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) have been generally applied due to their strong antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties, their toxicity is a subject of sustained debate, thus requiring further studies. The present study aims to evaluate the potential protective effect of gold nanoparticles and phthalocyanine-gold nanoconjugates (Pc-Au NCs) against the hepatorenal toxicity of silver nanoparticles in male rats. Herein, 60 adult male Rattus norvegicus rats were divided into six equal groups (n = 10/group); the first group was kept as control, the second received gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) intraperitoneally (10 µg/kg) daily for 3 weeks, the third group is gold-phthalocyanine (Pc-Au) group where rats were injected intraperitoneally with gold-phthalocyanine for 3 weeks (10 µg/kg), the fourth group received silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) (4 mg/kg) daily intraperitoneally for 3 weeks, the fifth group is silver + gold nanoparticles group (Ag + Au), and the sixth is silver + gold-phthalocyanine nanoconjugates (Ag + Pc-Au) group in which rats were intraperitoneally injected firstly with Ag NPs (4 mg/kg) for 3 weeks then with gold or gold-phthalocyanine for another 3 weeks (10 µg/kg). Our results revealed that Ag NPs could increase the serum AST, ALT, ALP, urea, creatinine, and lipid profile and significantly decreased the total protein and albumin. Moreover, histopathological alterations detected in the kidney and the liver of the Ag NPs group included vascular congestion, inflammatory cell infiltration, and tissue distortion. Alongside, exposure to Ag NPs induces hepatic and renal oxidative stress by suppressing the antioxidant-related genes including glutathione peroxidase 1 (gpx1), superoxide dismutase (sod), and catalase (cat). Ag NPs also upregulated the hepatic and renal genes involved in inflammation such as the interleukin-6 (il-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (tnf-α), nuclear factor kappa B (nf-κβ), apoptosis such as the BCL2 associated X (bax), casp3, and other related to metabolism including asparagine synthetase (asns), suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (socs3), MYC proto-oncogene (myc), and C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (ccl2). On the other hand, treatment with Au NPs and Pc-Au NCs could effectively ameliorate the hepatorenal damages induced by Ag NPs and improve liver and kidney architecture and function, especially in the Pc-Au NCs group. Briefly, our study revealed the underlined mechanism of Ag NPs hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects and that Pc-Au NCs could alleviate these adverse impacts via their anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities.

MicroRNAs in Anticancer Drugs Hepatotoxicity: From Pathogenic Mechanism and Early Diagnosis to Therapeutic Targeting by Natural Products

Patients receiving cancer therapies experience severe adverse effects, including hepatotoxicity, even at therapeutic doses. Consequently, monitoring patients on cancer therapy for hepatic functioning is necessary to avoid permanent liver damage. Several pathways of anticancer drug-induced hepatotoxicity involve microRNAs (miRNAs) via targeting mRNAs. These short and non-coding RNAs undergo rapid modulation in non-targeted organs due to cancer therapy insults. Recently, there has been an interest for miRNAs as useful and promising biomarkers for monitoring toxicity since they have conserved sequences across species and are cellular-specific, stable, released during injury, and simple to analyze. Herein, we tried to review the literature handling miRNAs as mediators and biomarkers of anticancer drug-induced hepatotoxicity. Natural products and phytochemicals are suggested as safe and effective candidates in treating cancer. There is also an attempt to combine anticancer drugs with natural compounds to enhance their efficiencies and reduce systemic toxicities. We also discussed natural products protecting against chemotherapy hepatotoxicity via modulating miRNAs, given that miRNAs have pathogenic and diagnostic roles in chemotherapy-induced hepatotoxicity and that many natural products can potentially regulate their expression. Future studies should integrate these findings into clinical trials by formulating suitable therapeutic dosages of natural products to target miRNAs involved in anticancer drug hepatotoxicity.

Drug-induced liver injury and anti-hepatotoxic effect of herbal compounds: a metabolic mechanism perspective

BACKGROUND

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is the most challenging and thought-provoking liver problem for hepatologists owing to unregulated medication usage in medical practices, nutritional supplements, and botanicals. Due to underreporting, analysis, and identification issues, clinically evaluated medication hepatotoxicity is prevalent yet hard to quantify.

PURPOSE

This review's primary objective is to thoroughly compare pharmaceutical drugs and herbal compounds that have undergone clinical trials, focusing on their metabolic mechanisms contributing to the onset of liver illnesses and their hepatoprotective effects.

METHODS

The data was gathered from several online sources, such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, using appropriate keywords.

RESULTS

The prevalence of conventional and herbal medicine is rising. A comprehensive understanding of the metabolic mechanism is necessary to mitigate the hepatotoxicity induced by drugs and facilitate the incorporation or substitution of herbal medicine instead of pharmaceuticals. Moreover, pre-clinical pharmacological research has the potential to facilitate the development of natural products as therapeutic agents, displaying promising possibilities for their eventual clinical implementation.

CONCLUSIONS

Acetaminophen, isoniazid, rifampicin, diclofenac, and pyrogallol have been identified as the most often reported synthetic drugs that produce hepatotoxicity by oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis during the last several decades. Due to their ability to downregulate many factors (such as cytokines) and activate several enzyme/enzyme systems, herbal substances (such as Gingko biloba extract, curcumin, resveratrol, and silymarin) provide superior protection against harmful mechanisms which induce hepatotoxicity with fewer adverse effects than their synthetic counterparts.

Neuroprotective potential of Ginkgo biloba on alteration of rat cerebellum following prenatal exposure to cyclophosphamide

The cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic drugs is known due to its non-selective effect not only on cancer cells but also on healthy cells. This study investigated the cerebellar alteration in rats prenatally exposed to cyclophosphamide (SK, 20 mg/kg). We also evaluated the neuroprotective potential of Ginkgo biloba (GB, 80 mg/kg/day) against possible biological changes caused by SK in the cerebellar tissues. Twenty adult female rats (weighing 230-280 g, 12 weeks old) were divided into five groups: control, sham, SK, GB, and SK + GB. After mating, pregnant rats was treated with SK in the SK and SK + GB groups and GB in the GB and SK + GB groups from day 13 to day 21 of gestation. After parturition, eight female rats were randomly selected from each group. On day 32 after birth, the cerebellar tissues were dissected and then examined under light microscope using stereological and histopathological methods. Stereological findings showed that the total number of Purkinje cells and granular cells were significantly decreased in the SK group than the control group (p < 0.05). In addition, the mean volumes of molecular layer, granular layer, white matter, and cerebellum were significantly decreased in the SK group compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In the SK + GB group, the total number Purkinje cell, and granular cells, as well as the mean volumes of molecular layer, granular layer, white matter, and cerebellum were significantly increased than the SK group (p < 0.05). Histopathological evaluation also confirmed our stereological findings in the cerebellar tissues. Our results showed that prenatal exposure to SK caused significant changes in the cerebellar architectures of rats, and that GB administration significantly attenuated the deleterious effect of SK on the cerebellar tissues.

Adaptive regulations of Nrf2 alleviates silver nanoparticles-induced oxidative stress-related liver cells injury

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely used in various fields such as industry, agriculture, and medical care because of their excellent broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. However, their extensive use has raised concerns about their health risks. Liver is one of the main target organs for the accumulation and action of AgNPs. Therefore, evaluating the toxic effects of AgNPs on liver cells and its mechanisms of action is crucial for the safe application of AgNPs. In the study, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-coated AgNPs were characterized. The human hepatoma cell line (HepG2) and the normal hepatic cell line (L02) were exposed to different concentrations of AgNPs (20-160 μg/mL) and pretreated with the addition of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or by Nrf2 siRNA transfection. NAC was able to inhibit the concentration-dependent increase in the level of apoptosis induced by AgNPs in HepG2 cells and L02 cells. Interestingly, HepG2 cells were more sensitive to AgNPs than L02 cells, and this may be related to the different ROS generation and responses to AgNPs by cancer cells and normal cells. In addition, NAC also alleviated the imbalance of antioxidant system and cell cycle arrest, which may be related to AgNPs-induced DNA damage and autophagy. The knockdown of nuclear factor erythroid-derived factor 2-related factor (Nrf2) found that AgNPs-induced ROS and apoptosis levels were further upregulated, but the cell cycle arrest was alleviated. On the whole, Nrf2 exerts a protective role in AgNPs-induced hepatotoxicity. This study complements the hepatotoxicity mechanisms of AgNPs and provides data for a future exploration of AgNPs-related anti-hepatocellular carcinoma drugs.

Silver nanoparticles induced hepatoxicity via the apoptotic/antiapoptotic pathway with activation of TGFβ-1 and α-SMA triggered liver fibrosis in Sprague Dawley rats

Despite the extraordinary use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in medicinal purposes and the food industry, there is rising worry about potential hazards to human health and the environment. The existing study aims to assess the hepatotoxic effects of different dosages of AgNPs by evaluating hematobiochemical parameters, oxidative stress, liver morphological alterations, immunohistochemical staining, and gene expression to clarify the mechanism of AgNPs' hepatic toxic potential. Forty male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly assigned into control and three AgNPs intraperitoneally treated groups 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg b.w. daily for 15 and 30 days. AgNP exposure reduced body weight, caused haematological abnormalities, and enhanced hepatic oxidative and nitrosative stress with depletion of the hepatic GSH level. Serum hepatic injury biomarkers with pathological hepatic lesions where cholangiopathy emerges as the main hepatic alteration in a dosage- and duration-dependent manner were also elevated. Furthermore, immunohistochemical labelling of apoptotic markers demonstrated that Bcl-2 was significantly downregulated while caspase-3 was significantly upregulated. In conclusion, the hepatotoxic impact of AgNPs may be regulated by two mechanisms, implying the apoptotic/antiapoptotic pathway via raising BAX and inhibiting Bcl-2 expression levels in a dose-dependent manner. The TGF-β1 and α-SMA pathway which triggered fibrosis with incorporation of iNOS which consequently activates the inflammatory process were also elevated. To our knowledge, there has been no prior report on the experimental administration of AgNPs in three different dosages for short and long durations in rats with the assessment of Bcl-2, BAX, iNOS, TGF-β1, and α-SMA gene expressions.

The Protective Effect of α-Lipoic Acid against Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Mediated Liver Damage Is Associated with Upregulating Nrf2 and Suppressing NF-κB

This study examined if regulating the keap-1? Nrf2 antioxidant pathway mediated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) induced liver damage, and examined the protective effect of co-supplement of α-lipoic acid (α-LA). Rats were separated into 4 groups (n = 8/each) as control, α-LA (200 mg/kg), AuNPs (5 µg/2.85 × 10¹¹), and AuNPs (5 µg/2.85 × 10¹¹) + α-LA (200 mg/kg). After 7 days, AuNPs induced severe degeneration in the livers of rats with the appearance of some fatty changes. In addition, it increased serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (ɣ-GTT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), as well as liver levels of malondialdehyde (MDA). Concomitantly, AuNPs significantly depleted hepatic levels of total glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) but increased hepatic levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). It also reduced mRNA levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) but significantly increased those of Bax and cleaved caspase-3, as well as the ratio of Bax/Bcl2. In addition, AuNPs enhanced the total and nuclear levels of NF-κB p65 but reduced the mRNA and total and nuclear protein levels of Nrf2. Of note, AuNPs did not affect the mRNA levels of keap-1. All these events were reversed by α-LA in the AuNPs-treated rats. In conclusion, α-LA attenuated AuNPs-mediated liver damage in rats by suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation, effects that are associated with upregulation/activation of Nrf2.

Evaluation of the Ameliorative Effect of Zinc Nanoparticles against Silver Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicity in Liver and Kidney of Rats

Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) have various pharmaceutical and biomedical applications owing to their unique physicochemical properties. Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace element, a strong antioxidant, and has a primary role in gene expression, enzymatic reactions, and protein synthesis. The present study aims to explore the toxic effects of Ag-NPs (50 nm) on the liver and kidney of rats and also to evaluate the potential protective effect of Zn-NPs (100 nm) against these adverse effects. Forty adult Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four equal groups: control group, Ag-NPs group, Zn-NPs group, and Ag-NPs + Zn-NPs group. Ag-NPs (50 mg/kg) and/or Zn-NPs (30 mg/kg) were administered daily by gavage for 90 days. The results showed that exposure to Ag-NPs increased serum ALT, AST, urea, and creatinine. Ag-NPs also induced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation and increased inflammatory cytokines in hepatic and renal tissues. Moreover, histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations revealed various histological alterations and positive caspase-3 expressions in the liver and kidney following exposure to Ag-NPs. On the other hand, most of these toxic effects were ameliorated by co-administration of Zn-NPs. It was concluded that Ag-NPs have hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects in rats via different mechanisms including oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis and that Zn-NPs can be used to alleviate these harmful effects by their antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic properties.

An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities

Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.

An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities

Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.

Imbalanced inflammatory response in subchronic arsenic-induced liver injury and the protective effects of Ginkgo biloba extract in rats: Potential role of cytokines mediated cell-cell interactions

Arsenic is a well-known environmental toxicant and carcinogen, which has been epidemiologically proved related to the increased hepatic disorders. Researches have shown that aseptic inflammation and abnormal immune response are associated with arsenic-induced liver injury. However, the immunotoxic effects of liver have not been extensively characterized. Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE), a natural products of G. biloba leaves with proven anti-inflammatory and potential immunoregulatory activities, was used as intervention agent to explore its protective effects on arsenic-induced hepatotoxicity. Thus, the underlying mechanism of the immunotoxic effects on arsenic-induced liver injury were investigated in 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mg/kg NaAsO₂ of Wistar rats for 16 weeks. Subsequently, GBE was used as intervention agent in 50 mg/kg for 6 weeks after cessation of arsenic exposure. The ratio of Th17 to Treg cells in peripheral blood as well as the secretion of inflammatory cytokines IL-17A, IL-6, TGF-β1, and IL-10 in serum and liver were detected. Meanwhile, the notable activation of aseptic inflammation-related molecule TLR4 and its downstream targets MyD88 and NF-κB in the liver were observed. In this work, we confirmed that subchronic exposed to arsenic triggered the infiltration of inflammatory cells in rat liver, coupled with obvious histopathological changes and aberrant hepatic serum biochemical parameters. Meanwhile, imbalanced immune response was verified by the notable abnormal ratio of Th17 to Treg cells in peripheral blood as well as the secretion of inflammatory cytokines IL-17A, IL-6, TGF-β1, and IL-10 in serum and liver of arsenic exposed rats. Further, the level of TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB in liver both transcription and translation activity were raised. Subsequently, GBE markedly mitigated arsenic-induced liver injury, most impressively, post treatment with GBE prominently suppressed the overactivated inflammatory-related TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB pathway and evidently decreased the secretion of inflammation cytokines. Meanwhile, the disturbance of pro- and anti-inflammatory response was reversed. We concluded that the disruption of pro- and anti-inflammatory T-cells balance caused by cytokines mediated cell-cell interactions may be one of the mechanisms underlying arsenic-induced liver injury and that GBE intervention exerts an evidence protective effects, which might be closely associated with the suppression of inflammatory-related TLR4 pathway.

Parkin-mediated mitochondrial quality control protects against aluminum-induced liver damage in mice

Aluminum (Al) is known to be hepatotoxic. Oxidative stress is the main mechanism of liver injury caused by Al, and can also lead to mitochondrial damage. Mitochondrial damage is a prerequisite for mitochondrial quality control (MQC) dysregulation. Parkin can activate MQC and maintain mitochondrial homeostasis. However, the role of Parkin-mediated MQC in Al-induced liver damage has not been elucidated. In this study, forty male wild type (WT) C57BL/6N mice were treated with 0, 44.825, 89.65 or 179.3 mg/kg body weight AlCl₃ in drinking water for 90 days, respectively. We found that Al induced mitophagy and disrupted mitochondrial dynamics and mitochondrial biogenesis. Then, twenty male WT C57BL/6N mice and twenty male Parkin knockout (Parkin^-/-) C57BL/6N mice were divided into four groups and treated with 0, 89.65, 0, 89.65 mg/kg body weight AlCl₃ in drinking water for 90 days, respectively. We found that Parkin^-/- inhibited mitophagy and further disrupted mitochondrial dynamics and mitochondrial biogenesis. These results indicated that Parkin-mediated MQC could be disrupted by Al and protected against Al-induced liver damage.

In Vivo Study of Entero- and Hepatotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles Stabilized with Benzyldimethyl-[3-myristoylamine)-propyl]ammonium Chloride (Miramistin) to CBF1 Mice upon Enteral Administration

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are the most widely studied antimicrobial nanomaterials. However, their use in biomedicine is currently limited due to the availability of data that prove the nanosilver toxicity associated primarily with oxidative stress development in mammalian cells. The surface modification of AgNPs is a potent technique of improvement of their biocompatibility. The synthetic or natural compounds that combine zero or low toxicity towards human and animal organisms with inherent antimicrobial properties are the most promising stabilizing agents, their use would also minimize the risks of microorganisms developing resistance to silver-based materials. We used a simple technique to obtain 30–60 nm AgNPs stabilized with benzyldimethyl[3-myristoylamine)-propyl]ammonium chloride monohydrate (BAC)—a well-known active ingredient of many antibacterial drugs. The objective of the study was to assess the AgNPs-BAC entero- and hepatotoxicity to CBF1 mice upon enteral administration. The animals were exposed to 0.8–7.5 mg/kg doses of AgNPs-BAC in the acute and to 0.05–2.25 mg/kg doses of AgNPs-BAC in the subacute experiments. No significant entero- and hepatotoxic effects following a single exposure to doses smaller than 4 mg/kg were detected. Repeated exposure to the doses of AgNPs-BAC below 0.45 mg/kg and to the doses of BAC below 0.5 mg/kg upon enteral administration also led to no adverse effects. During the acute experiment, the higher AgNPs-BAC dose resulted in increased quantities of aminotransferases and urea, as well as the albumin-globulin ratio shift, which are indicative of inflammatory processes. Besides, the relative mass of the liver of mice was smaller compared to the control. During the subacute experiment, the groups treated with the 0.25–2.25 mg/kg dose of AgNPs-BAC had a lower weight gain rate compared to the control, while the groups treated with the 2.25 mg/kg dose of AgNPs-BAC showed statistically significant variations in the blood serum transaminases activity, which indicated hepatosis. It should be noted that the spleen and liver of the animals from the groups treated with the 0.45 and 2.25 mg/kg dose of AgNPs-BAC were more than two times smaller compared to the control. In the intestines of some animals from the group treated with the 2.25 mg/kg dose of AgNPs-BAC small areas of hyperemia and enlarged Peyer’s patches were observed. Histological examination confirmed the initial stages of the liver and intestinal wall inflammation.

A link between nanoparticles and Parkinson's disease. Which nanoparticles are most harmful?

Nowadays, different kinds of nanoparticles (NPs) are produced around the world and used in many fields and products. NPs can enter the body and aggregate in the various organs including brain. They can damage neurons, in particular dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and striatal neurons which their lesion is associated with Parkinson's disease (PD). So, NPs can have a role in PD induction along with other agents and factors. PD is the second most common neurodegenerative disease in the world, and in patients, its symptoms progressively worsen day by day through different pathways including oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, α-synuclein increasing and aggregation, apoptosis and reduction of tyrosine hydroxylase positive cells. Unfortunately, there is no effective treatment for PD. So, prevention of this disease is very important. On the other hand, without having sufficient information about PD inducers, prevention of this disease would not be possible. Therefore, we need to have sufficient information about things we contact with them in daily life. Since, NPs are widely used in different products especially in consumer products, and they can enter to the brain easily, in this review the toxicity effects of metal and metal oxide NPs have been evaluated in molecular and cellular levels to determine potential of different kinds of NPs in development of PD.

Ginkgo biloba Extract Attenuates Methotrexate-Induced Testicular Injury in Rats: Cross-talk Between Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Apoptosis, and miRNA-29a Expression

Ginkgo biloba leaf extract (GIN) is a popular Chinese herbal medicine. It has a nephroprotective effect against the nephrotoxicity induced by the chemotherapeutic agent methotrexate (MTX). This work was designed to explore the testicular protective role of GIN on MTX-induced testicular injury in a rat model. The experimental protocol lasted for 10 days for the 4 studied groups. First group: received saline (normal control, NC group). The second group was administered GIN (100 mg/kg/day) orally for 10 days (GIN C). Third group: injected with MTX (20 mg/kg ip) only on the fifth day (MTX group). Fourth group: administered GIN for 10 days with MTX injection on the fifth day (GIN+MTX group). MTX induced testicular injury as evident by a marked rise in the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-1β protein levels, nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) protein expression, bcl-2 associated × protein (Bax) mRNA expression, p53 mRNA and protein expressions, and miRNA29-a expression along with a marked decline in the serum level of testosterone and superoxide dismutase (SOD) content in testicular tissue in relation to the NC group. Moreover, histopathological testicular damage with a notable decrease in the Johnsen score together with a significant elevation in the testicular injury score was observed in the MTX group in comparison to the NC group. The administration of GIN ameliorated the biochemical changes as well as the testicular histopathological findings and scores. GIN could protect against MTX-induced gonadotoxicity by its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic activities plus the regulation of the miRNA-29a testicular expression.

Ginkgo biloba attenuated hepatotoxicity induced by combined exposure to cadmium and fluoride via modulating the redox imbalance, Bax/Bcl-2 and NF-kB signaling pathways in male rats

Aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of Ginkgo Biloba (G.B) hydro-ethanolic extract against hepatotoxicity induced by combined exposure to cadmium (Cd) and fluoride (F) in Wistar rats. Animals were exposed to F (30 mg/L) + Cd (40 mg/L), F + Cd plus G.B (50,100 and 200 mg/kg), G.B (200 mg/kg), F + Cd plus Vit C(1000 mg/L) in drinking water for 42 days. Significant raise in liver enzymes and histopathological changes were observed in F + Cd treated rats. F + Cd exposure enhanced protein and glutathione oxidation, lipid peroxidation and decreased superoxide dismutase activity. F and Cd combination also caused mitochondrial dysfunction, swelling and mitochondrial membrane potential collapse in liver isolated mitochondria. Up-regulation of inflammatory genes (TNF-α, IL-1β and NF-kB) and pro-apoptotic Bax as well as down-regulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 were detected after co-exposure to F and Cd. Interestingly, G.B alleviated F + Cd induced liver oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and prevented inflammation and apoptosis. Furthermore, decrease in serum liver enzymes and improvement of histopathologic lesions were observed in G.B treated rats. This study explored the potential beneficial role of G.B on F + Cd combined hepatotoxic effects via considering its possible antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, mitochondrial protection and anti-apoptotic effects.

Disturbed mitochondrial quality control involved in hepatocytotoxicity induced by silica nanoparticles

The extensive application of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) brings about inevitable occupational, environmental, and even iatrogenic exposure for human beings. The liver, which is rich in mitochondria, is one of the target organs of SiNPs, but the underlying mechanisms by which these nanoparticles (NPs) interact with liver mitochondria and affect their functions still remain unclear. In the present study, we examined silicon nanoparticle (SiNP)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, and further revealed its negative effects on mitochondrial quality control (MQC) in the human liver cell line L-02, including mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy and biogenesis. Consequently, SiNPs induced cellular injury, accompanied by mitochondrial dysfunction, including mitochondrial reactive oxygen generation and mitochondrial membrane potential collapse. In line with the transmission electron microscopy (TEM)-observed abnormalities in the mitochondrial morphology and length distribution, a fission phenotype was manifested in the mitochondria of SiNP-exposed cells, and up-regulated DRP1 and FIS1, and down-regulated MFN1, were detected. Furthermore, the enhanced LC3II level, colocalization of the mitochondria and lysosomes, activated PINK1/Parkin signaling, and accumulated p62 in the SiNP-exposed cells suggested mitophagy disorder triggered by SiNPs. In addition, SiNPs inhibited mito-biogenesis, as evidenced by the reduced mitochondrial mass and mtDNA copy number, as well as the suppressed PGC1α-NRF1-TFAM signaling pathway. Overall, the study demonstrates that SiNPs trigger hepatocytotoxicity through interfering with the MQC process, bringing in excessive mitochondrial fission, mitophagy disorder and suppressed mito-biogenesis, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and ensuing cell damage, and ultimately contributing to the occurrence and development of liver diseases. Our research could provide important experimental evidence related to safety assessments of SiNPs, especially in the field of biomedical applications.

Phytosynthesized Metallic Nanoparticles-between Nanomedicine and Toxicology. A Brief Review of 2019's Findings

Phytosynthesized nanoparticles represent a continuously increasing field of research, with numerous studies published each year. However, with the emerging interest in this area, the quality of the published works is also continuously increasing, switching from routine antioxidant or antimicrobial studies on trivial microbial lines to antibiotic-resistant strains or antitumoral studies. However, this increasing interest has not been not reflected in the studies regarding the toxicological effects of nanoparticles (NPs); this should be a subject of greatest interest, as the increasing administration of NPs in general (and phytosynthesized NPs in particular) could lead to their accumulation in the environment (soil, water and living organisms). The present review aims to present the most recent findings in the application of phytosynthesized NPs as antimicrobial and antitumoral agents, as well as the results regarding their toxicological potential.

In vivo protective effects of Ginkgo biloba L. leaf extract against hydrogen peroxide toxicity: cytogenetic and biochemical evaluation

In this study, the protective effects of Ginkgo biloba leaf extract (GbE) against toxicity induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in Swiss albino mice were investigated. Abnormal metaphase number (AMn), mitotic index (MI), micronucleus (MN), and chromosomal abnormalities (CAs) were analyzed for cytogenetic effects. Serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, glutathione (GSH), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in liver and kidney organs were investigated as indicators of biochemical toxicity. Six experimental groups were formed as a control and treatment group, each containing six animals. The mice in the control group were given tap water, while the mice in the administration group received two different doses of GbE and H₂O₂ for 45 consecutive days. It was observed that H₂O₂ administration caused a significant decrease in MI compared to the control group and caused a significant decrease in the frequency of AMn, MN, and CAs. Chromatid break was the most common type of CAs induced by H₂O₂, and the other CAs types observed in this study were chromosome break, fragment, dicentric, gap, and ring. It has been determined that GbE treatment decreases the clastogenic effects of H₂O₂ and reduces the MN and CAs frequency and causes a re-increase in mitotic cell numbers. It was determined that H₂O₂ administration caused changes in biochemical parameters and resulted in significant increases in serum AST, ALP, ALT, BUN, and creatinine levels. However, the level of MDA, which is an indicator of oxidative damage, increased, and GSH level decreased in liver and kidney tissues. Oxidative damage caused by H₂O₂ in liver and kidney tissues was improved, and all biochemical parameters tested were found to be ameliorated after GbE treatment. This improvement was dependent on the dose of GbE, and improvement in 150 mg/kg bw GbE was found to be more prominent. As a result, the GbE can be used as an antioxidant nutritional supplement to protect against the toxic effects of environmental agents such as H₂O₂.