The concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in muscle tissue of farmed Iranian rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), feed, and water samples collected from the west of Iran: a risk assessment study

Distribution of nitrate/nitrite and toxic metals in the soil-potato system and its health risk assessment in Iran

Potato is one of the essential food products whose health quality is greatly influenced by soil contamination and properties. In the current study, we have investigated the physicochemical characteristics of agricultural areas and the accumulation of nitrite/nitrate and metals in potato products in Hamedan, Iran. After determining the physicochemical characteristics of soil samples from four agricultural regions of Hamedan, 48 potato samples were collected from these regions. The heavy metals and nitrate/nitrite content were determined by ICP-OES and calorimetric methods, respectively. A negative correlation was observed between soil pH changes with nitrite/nitrate content and the accumulation of some heavy elements in potatoes. Furthermore, a positive correlation was found between soil phosphorus content and lead accumulation in potato. In present study, the amounts of lead, nitrate, and nitrite in 83.3%, 56%, and 12% of the collected samples were higher than the permissible limit reported by the World Health Organization (WHO), respectively. The EDI range for nitrate and nitrite was determined to be 130-260 and 1.4-2.7 µg/kg/day, respectively, which is much lower than the RfD set by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for nitrite and nitrate. Among metal pollutants, the toxic risk caused by lead in potato consumers was higher than the threshold limit. In conclusion, our findings showed that the physicochemical characteristics of the soil could effectively increase the availability of metal pollutants and nitrite/nitrate to the potato product and significantly reduce its health quality. Therefore, monitoring these pollutants in the soil-potato system, preventing the entry of industrial wastewater, and managing the use of agricultural fertilizers can effectively improve the health of this product for consumers.

Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in coffee: a comprehensive review of toxicity, prevalence, and analytical techniques

Coffee is one of the most popular non-alcoholic beverages, consumed as a raw material in different food sectors. The popularity of coffee is induced by its pleasant flavor, taste, and highly nutritious nature. However, the absorption of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) through preharvest, harvesting, and post-harvest stages makes it a potentially rich source. Essential elements are potentially toxic at a higher concentration than required for the human body to work. PTEs intake through food systems may lead to health risks, including mutagenicity, teratogenicity, carcinogenicity, and embryotoxic effects. Different analytical techniques such as spectroscopy, electromigration, and electrochemical. are used for PTEs content determination of coffee. Considering the importance of PTEs in human health and the worldwide popularity of coffee, their monitoring of coffee is crucial. Therefore, this study is aimed to investigate the classification, prevalence, and determination techniques of PTEs in different coffee types.

The Concentration and Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Farmed and Wild Carps (Cyprinus carpio) in Hamadan Province of Iran

This study focuses on measuring potentially toxic elements (PTEs) including mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) in farmed and wild carp by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and their intake amount and risk assessment. Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and the total THQ (TTHQ) were calculated for each element. In the present research, the concentration of As in farmed and wild carp samples was below the detection limit of ICP-OES (< 0.005 mg/kg). The mean concentrations of Pb, Cd, Fe, and Cu in farmed carp samples were significantly higher than that in wild carp samples, while Zn level was higher in the wild carp samples (P < 0.05). There is no significant difference between Hg and Mn in both fish (P > 0.05). The Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) results showed that the ranking order of PTEs based on their THQ was Hg > Pb > Zn > Cu > Fe > Cd > Mn. In the worst-case scenario (in the top 95 percentile) for both wild and farmed carp, the THQ of measured metals was less than one except Hg in children. Overall, this study demonstrated that the levels of PTEs in farmed and wild common carp had a potential non-carcinogenic risk for children (TTHQ > 1).

Health risk assessment of heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cd, and Hg) in water and muscle tissue of farmed carp species in North Iran

This cross-sectional study was conducted to determine and compare the concentrations of heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cd, and Hg) in carp-farming water and muscle of various carp species including common carp (Cyprinus carpio), bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) collected from three major warm-water fish farms in Mazandaran Province (Iran) during March 2018 to March 2019. In addition, bioaccumulation of heavy metals (BCFs) and carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessments of consumers exposed to heavy metals through fish consumption were estimated. The water concentration of all metals in this study was lower than permissible limits. The concentration of Zn in the water (10.21-17.11 μg L^-1) was higher than that of other metals in all sites, followed by Pb > Cd > Hg. In fish muscle, Zn concentration in silver carp was the highest, and the lowest concentrations were related to Hg and Cd in common carp and grass carp, respectively. The target hazard quotients (THQ) indicated that the non-carcinogenic health risk to humans was relatively low by consuming four farmed carp species products. The carcinogenic risk of inorganic Pb was 1.24E-04 (common carp) to 2.11E-04 (grass carp) for adults, which is within the acceptable range. The values of BCFs for all metals demonstrated that farmed carp muscle could not be considered a bioaccumulative tissue for heavy metals. The results indicated that the concentrations of heavy metals in the farmed carp species in North Iran were relatively low and did not cause considerable human health risks.

Health Risk Assessment of Essential and Toxic Metals in Canned/Pouched Food on Kitten and Adult Cats: an Animal Health Risk Assessment Adaptation Assay

The main aim of this study was to determine the levels of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in commercial canned and pouched cat foods (salmon, tuna, liver, fish, and other aquatic products) and assess the potential health risks to kitten (≤ 1 years old) and adult cats (≥ 1 years old) associated with the recommended average consumption rate of labels. The study was also aimed to adapt the health risk assessment method to animal health and to support clinical prevention and diagnosis. The detected levels of the metals were below the data from other studies, except the mean Fe in all and Pb levels in salmon and kitten foods. Target hazard quotient (THQ) and total target hazard quotient (TTHQ) values did not exceed 1. That means the studied metals do not pose a health risk for adult cats and kittens. Dietary Hg and Cd should also be considered in the differential diagnosis of cases with clinical or postmortem findings, especially regarding neurological, kidney, and liver tissues. In conclusion, although canned/pouched consumption does not pose a health risk with regard to metals, further studies of health risk assessment for other pollutants by this first adaptation method will be necessary.

The Occurrence of Lead in Animal Source Foods in Iran in the 2010s Decade: A Systematic Review

Lead is a toxic, non-biodegradable, and accumulative heavy metal released into the environment by natural and anthropogenic activities. Despite health concerns due to the consumption of lead-contaminated foods, no systematic and comprehensive review studies have been published about the lead occurrence in animal source foods in Iran. The present study aimed to review the papers investigating the Pb contamination in animal-based food groups (including meat, fish, milk and dairy products, egg and honey) in Iran. A comprehensive search was performed with selected keywords in databases of Scopus, Web of science, and Magiran to find articles that had been published from January 2010 to December 2019. Of 371 identified articles on Pb contaminations in foods, 60 articles were selected using PRISMA. The lead concentrations were higher than the maximum recommended limits in 3 of 9 studies on meat and meat products, 12 of 26 studies on fish and canned fish, and 5 of 18 studies on milk and dairy products. However, the Pb contamination observed in studies on honey and egg was not comparable due to the lack of national and international standards. These results represent the importance of environmental monitoring and assessment for reducing exposure of animals to Pb, resulting in an improvement of food safety.

A systematic review of the concentration of potentially toxic elements in fish from the Persian Gulf: A health risk assessment study

Fish as a critical food source is responsible for supplying nearly 20% of the average per capita animal protein for 3.2 billion people worldwide. However, oral exposure to potentially toxic elements (PTE) such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and arsenic (As) through marine fish consumption can cause health risks in consumers. This study aimed to collect information among databases (2000-2020), including ScienceDirect, PubMed, SCOPUS, EMBASE, and Google Scholar, regarding the concentration of PTEs in different types of fish from the Persian Gulf. In this regard, thirty articles containing 266 samples were included in the current systematic review. In addition, the non-carcinogenic risk caused by ingestion of PTEs via consumption of fish was calculated. The average PTE concentrations in fish muscles were presented in the following order: As (0.37 mg/kg ww) > Pb (0.20 mg/kg ww) > Cd (0.17 mg/kg ww) > Hg (0.13 mg/kg ww). However, the mean concentration of PTEs was below the defined level by the World Health Organization, and the findings revealed that the calculated average daily dose (ADD) for Cd and Pb in Iranian children and adult consumers was lower than the reference dose (RfD), whereas the ADD of Hg was higher than the RfD for children consumers. The total target hazard quotient for Iranian and children consumers was >1. The excess lifetime cancer risk values for Pb were safe, unlike those for Cd, which were in an unsafe range (>10^-4) for consumers.

Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in the Fillet of Narrow-Barred Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson): a Global Systematic Review, Meta-analysis and Risk Assessment

The contamination of seafood like narrow-barred Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson) fillets by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) has converted to worldwide health concerns. In this regard, the related citations regarding the concentration of PTEs in fillets of narrow-barred Spanish mackerel were collected through some of the international databases such as Scopus, Cochrane, PubMed, and Scientific Information Database (SID) up to 10 March 2020. The concentration of PTEs in fillets of narrow-barred Spanish mackerel fish was meta-analyzed and the health risk (non-carcinogenic risk) was estimated by the total target hazard quotient (TTHQ). The meta-analysis of data indicated that the rank order of PTEs in fillet of narrow-barred Spanish mackerel was Fe (10,853.29 μg/kg-ww) > Zn (4007.00 μg/kg-ww) > Cu (1005.66 μg/kg-ww) > total Cr (544.14 μg/kg-ww) > Mn (515.93 μg/kg-ww) > Ni (409.90 μg/kg-ww) > Pb (180.99 μg/kg-ww) > As (93.11 μg/kg-ww) > methyl Hg (66.60 μg/kg-ww) > Cd (66.03 μg/kg-ww). The rank order of health risk assessment based on the country by the aid of TTHQ for adult consumers was Malaysia (0.22251) > Philippines (0.21912) > Egypt (0.08684) > Taiwan (0.07430) > Bahrain (0.04893) > Iran (0.03528) > China (0.00620) > Pakistan (0.00316) > Yemen (0.00157) > India (0.00073). In addition, the rank order of health risk assessment based on the country by the aid of TTHQ for child consumers was Malaysia (1.03838) > Philippines (1.02257) > Egypt (0.40523) > Taiwan (0.34674) > Bahrain (0.22832) > Iran (0.16466) > China (0.02892) > Pakistan (0.01474) > Yemen (0.00731) > India (0.00340). Therefore, the children in Malaysia and the Philippines were at considerable non-carcinogenic risk. Hence, approaching the recommended control plans in order to decrease the non-carcinogenic risk associated with the ingestion of PTEs via the consumption of narrow-barred Spanish mackerel fish fillets is crucial.

Concentration of Potentially Harmful Elements (PHEs) in Trout Fillet (Rainbow and Brown) Fish: a Global Systematic Review and Meta-analysis and Health Risk Assessment

In this work, articles regarding the concentration on potentially harmful elements (PHEs) in fillet trout (rainbow and brown) fishes were retrieved from Cochrane, Scopus, and PubMed databases between 1 January 1983 and 30 April 2020. The pooled concentration of PHEs in fillet trout fishes was meta-analyzed using a random-effect model (REM) and following the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks was calculated using the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) method. The meta-analysis of 42 articles (43 data report) revealed that a sort of PHEs in fillet trout was 19,996.64 μg/kg ww for Fe; 1834.75 μg/kg ww for Co; 772.21 μg/kg ww for Cu; 335.78 μg/kg ww for Ni; 290.46 μg/kg ww for Se; 226.20for Cr; 178.11 μg/kg ww for Pb; 77.40 μg/kg ww for Hg; 19.40 μg/kg ww for Cd; and 3.66 μg/kg ww for inorganic As. The non-carcinogenic risk assessment indicated that the lowest and highest hazard index (HI) in the adults was Pakistan (0.0012) and Turkey (0.2388), respectively, and in children was Pakistan (0.0057) and Turkey (1.114), respectively. The non-carcinogenic risk was acceptable for adult consumers in all countries (HI > 1 value) but non-carcinogenic risk for children was not acceptable in Turkey. The sort of countries based on carcinogenic risk in the adults due to inorganic As was China (1.44E-06) > Iran (9.14E-08) > Turkey (4.45E-08) > Portugal (9.04E-10). The carcinogenic risk was threshold for adult consumers in China (CR < 10^-6). Consumption of fillet trout (rainbow and brown) content of PHEs in many countries cannot endanger the health of consumers.

The analysis and probabilistic health risk assessment of acrylamide level in commercial nuggets samples marketed in Iran: effect of two different cooking methods

The aim of current study was to evaluate the acrylamide level in chicken, meat and shrimp nugget samples cooked in both traditional and industrial methods using "Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe" QuEChERS extraction and gas chromatography-flame-ionization detection (GC-FID). Results revealed the traditional frying method has significant effect on the increase of acrylamide compared to industrial frying method and it was also found that the different cooking temperatures and time have significant effect on increase of acrylamide formation (p < 0.05), but type of edible oils had no significant effect. The highest acrylamide level found in shrimp nuggets (27 ± 1.5 ng/g) which fried by colza oil and traditional cooking method (6 min at 220 °C), while the lowest content of acrylamide found in chicken nuggets (7.3 ± 0.1 ng/g) which fried by corn oil and industrial method (3 min at 180 °C). Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) results indicated that the trend of potential non-carcinogenic risks on THQ for children was chicken nugget (3.51E-3) > meat nugget (1.36E-3) > shrimp nugget (1.43E-4) and for adults was chicken nugget (3.49E-4) > meat nugget (1.35E-4) > shrimp nugget (1.38E-5). The health risk of acrylamide for adults and children, was considerably lower than the safe risk limits (HQ >1 and CR > 1E-4) for Iranian population.

Assessment of Rice Marketed in Iran with Emphasis on Toxic and Essential Elements; Effect of Different Cooking Methods

Rice is one of the most valuable nutrients in the diet of most people in the world. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of various pre-cooking (washing, soaking) and cooking processes (traditional and rinse) of rice on the amount of toxic and essential elements in the various brands of rice in Iran and assessing human health risks from their carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects. For this purpose, totally, 144 sample sizes were examined from three brand (Iranian (n = 48), Pakistani (n = 48), and Indian (n = 48)) in order to the amount of toxic and essential elements using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. The results showed that pre-cooking processes such as washing and soaking in the rinse method were significantly effective in removal toxic metals than the traditional method, so that the most changes were observed for potassium and aluminum metals. The estimated daily intakes of copper, magnesium, manganese, iron, and zinc in different cooking methods were 1.19-1.2%, 0.29-0.32%, 1.01-1.23%, 0.4-0.98%, and 0.9-1.32%, respectively. The Monte Carlo simulation results showed that the rank order of toxic metals of cooked rice based on target hazard quotients value was arsenic > chromium > cadmium > mercury > lead > aluminum, respectively. The result of cancer risk probability was lower than the safe risk limits (1E-4), representing no remarkable cancer risk probability that was due to ingestion of rice for adults and children in Iran. According to the this results, it is recommended to use the rinse method due to further reduction of metals especially toxic metals for rice samples, although the amount of essential elements was also removed by this method.

Nutritional characterization of freshwater mud eel (Monopterus cuchia) muscle cooked by different thermal processes

This paper reports the effects of four popular cooking methods viz. grilling, boiling, frying, and microwaving on the proximate and nutritional compositions of freshwater mud eel (FWME) muscle. The moisture content of raw FWME muscle was 74.45%, which was similar in boiled products but lower in grilled, fried, and microwaved products (p ≤ .05). The protein content in raw and cooked FWME muscles varied between 14.49% and 21.28%. There were found 20 different fatty acids in FWME muscle of which palmitic acid was the most abundant one with an amount of 26.51%-29.70% in raw and cooked FWME muscles. FWME muscle contained a substantial amount of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, ranging from 7.54% to 13.7%. However, the thermal effects during cooking decreased the ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid contents. There were seven essential and eight nonessential amino acids available in FWME muscle; among the essential amino acids, lysine content was the highest. Raw and cooked FWME were very rich in calcium, between 794.52 mg/100 g and 883.24 mg/100 g muscle. Among the studied heavy metals, Pb content was the highest. However, all the heavy metal contents were within acceptable limits determined by health risk assessment, that is, target hazard quotient and target cancer risk.

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Aflatoxin B1 in Omena (Rastrineobola argentea) from Kenya

Omena (Rastrineobola argentea) is the most consumed fish species in Kenya. In this study, we assessed the occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Omena and the potential health risk of AFB1 to Kenyan consumers of this fish. A total of 74 samples comprising Omena intended for human consumption and fish feed production were analyzed in this study. Aflatoxin levels in Omena were determined using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Omena intended for fish feed production was most contaminated with a mean concentration of 46.93 μg·kg−1 (2.24–115.23 μg·kg−1) compared with Omena intended for human consumption (mean = 19.42 μg·kg−1, range = 2.01–49.30 μg·kg−1). Thirty-five positive samples (83.3%) exceeded the maximum level permitted (5 μg·kg−1) by the East Africa Community standard for food used for human consumption. The exposure dose of AFB1 from consuming Omena was estimated to be 1.34 ng·kg−1 BW day−1, and margin of exposure (MoE) value for AFB1 was found to be 126.3, which indicates health risk to Omena consumers. The results suggest that the current situation of aflatoxin contamination in Omena has an adverse effect on the health of the consumers as well as the animals. Therefore, more surveys are needed to understand the scope and extent of aflatoxin contamination in Omena.

The influence of processing and clarifier agents on the concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in pekmez (a grape molasses-like syrup)

The changes in some potentially toxic elements (PTEs) including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) during pekmez (grape molasses-like syrup) processing and the utilization of various types of clarifiers (white soil, bentonite, and gelatin) in two levels (1.5 and 3% w/w) were analyzed. The average concentrations of Pb, Cd, As, Fe, Zn, and Cu in grape samples were measured as 0.055 ± 0.005, 0.030 ± 0.002, 0.044 ± 0.002, 2.882 ± 0.013, 2.372 ± 0.088, and 1.194 ± 0.01 μg g^-1. During pekmez production, the range of changes in Pb, Cd, As, Fe, Zn, and Cu was -43.38% to 40.25%, -55.49% to 0.23%, -76.15% to 1.80%, -74.15% to 58.47%, -40.55% to -18.12%, and -83.16% to -21.39%, respectively. The effect of the clarification process on the PTEs depended on the type and concentration of both PTE and clarifier agent used while the incorporation of gelatin resulted in a significant reduction in all of PT. Graphical abstract.