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Gonnuri B, Guo L. Metal accumulation in cattails cultured in soils flooded with artificial wastewater of varying pH and different levels of metals (Cr, Cd and Zn). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2024:1-11. [PMID: 39120440 DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2024.2389184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Toxic metals cause risks to the ecological environment. Typha latifolia L. is a good candidate to clean potentially toxic metals contaminated water or soil. However, limited research investigated the impact of environmental factors (e.g., pH, soil substrate, flood duration) on metal accumulations in cattails. In this study, cattails were cultured in soils flooded with artificial wastewater with varying pH (5, 7 or 9) and different levels of Cr, Cd and Zn for four weeks to investigate the interactions between environmental conditions and metal uptake in cattails. The metal content in biomass were measured by an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer. More Zn (>10,000 mg/kg dry biomass) entered plants compared to Cd and Cr (<1,000 mg/kg dry biomass). Approximately 80% of Zn from solutions with 50 mg/L Cd, 25 mg/L Cr, 250 mg/L Zn were removed by cattails. Most Cd and Cr were sorbed onto soils. Cattails exhibited relatively consistent performance in removing metals from wastewater with initial pH of 5, 7 or 9. The pH of all the solutions ended close to neutral after 4 weeks. More research is needed to further understand the influence of environmental conditions on metal uptakes in plants to improve phytoremediation efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavya Gonnuri
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, TX A&M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX, USA
| | - Lin Guo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, TX A&M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX, USA
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Taeprayoon P, Pongphontong K, Somtrakoon K, Phusantisampan T, Meeinkuirt W. Synergistic effects of zinc and cadmium on phytoremediation potential of Christmas moss (Vesicularia montagnei). Sci Rep 2024; 14:17754. [PMID: 39085365 PMCID: PMC11291674 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-68849-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The hyperaccumulation potential of zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) and their synergistic effects were examined in relation to Christmas moss (Vesicularia montagnei (Bél) Broth., Hypnaceae), an aquatic and terrestrial moss, dosed with Cd (Cd1 and Cd2), Zn (Zn1 and Zn2) and combined Zn and Cd (Cd1Zn1 and Cd2Zn2). Zinc promoted plant growth and development, particularly in the highest Zn and combined Zn/Cd treatments (Zn2 and Cd2Zn2). The Zn treatment resulted in substantial moss chlorophyll content and highest percentage relative growth rate in biomass value (0.23 mg L-1 and 106.8%, respectively); however, the Cd2Zn2 treatment achieved maximal production of chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll (0.29 and 0.51 mg L-1, respectively) due to synergistic effects. These findings suggest that Christmas moss is a highly metal-tolerant and adaptable bryophyte species. Zinc was essential for reducing the detrimental effects of Cd while simultaneously promoting moss growth and biomass development. Furthermore, Christmas moss exhibited hyperaccumulation potential for Cd and Zn in the Cd2Zn2 and Zn alone treatments, as evidenced by highest Cd and Zn values in gametophores (1002 and 18,596 mg per colony volume, respectively). Using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry, atomic percentages of element concentrations in moss gametophores in the Zn2, Cd2 and combined Zn/Cd treatments were generally in the order: K > Ca > P > Zn > Cd. When comparing the atomic percentages of Zn and Cd in gametophores, it is likely that the higher atomic percentage of Zn was because this element is essential for plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puntaree Taeprayoon
- Agricultural and Environmental Utilization Research Unit, Nakhonsawan Campus, Mahidol University, Nakhonsawan, 60130, Thailand
| | - Kanwara Pongphontong
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahasarakham University, Kantharawichai, 44150, Maha Sarakham, Thailand
| | - Khanitta Somtrakoon
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahasarakham University, Kantharawichai, 44150, Maha Sarakham, Thailand
| | - Theerawut Phusantisampan
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Science, King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, 10800, Thailand
| | - Weeradej Meeinkuirt
- Water and Soil Environmental Research Unit, Nakhonsawan Campus, Mahidol University, Nakhonsawan, 60130, Thailand.
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Chunwichit S, Phusantisampan T, Thongchai A, Taeprayoon P, Pechampai N, Kubola J, Pichtel J, Meeinkuirt W. Influence of soil amendments on phytostabilization, localization and distribution of zinc and cadmium by marigold varieties. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 919:170791. [PMID: 38342454 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Marigolds (Tagetes erecta L.) were evaluated for phytoremediation potential of cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) as a function of amendment application to soil. Vermicompost (V), biodigestate (Bi), and combined V + Bi (VBi) were used as soil amendments in Zn and Cd co-contaminated soils. Application of soil amendments can alter physicochemical properties of soils, particularly pH, EC, CEC and nutrient concentrations. The VBi treatment resulted in highest percentage growth rate in biomass (52 %) for the Twenty yellow variety of marigold. Also, in the VBi treatment, leaves of Dragon yellow variety exhibited maximal accumulation of Zn and Cd. Flower extracts of Twenty yellow in the V treatment had substantial carotenoid content (71.7 mg L-1) and lowest IC50 value (43.7 mg L-1), thus indicating it had highest DPPH free radical scavenging activity. Dragon yellow exhibited highest values of ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP; 2066 mg L-1), total flavonoids content (TFC; 64.1 mg L-1), and total phenolics content (TPC; 50.9 mg L-1). Using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, the atomic percentages of Zn and Cd in all marigold varieties and treatments showed similar patterns over flower surfaces, seeds, and flower petals in descending order. Prime yellow in the V treatment resulted in higher Zn accumulation in roots (bioconcentration factor of root value) > 1 and translocation factor value < 1, indicating an enhanced ability of the plant for phytostabilization. Application of V altered antioxidant activities and production of bioactive compounds as well as enhanced the excluder potential of Cd and Zn, particularly in the Prime yellow variety. Application of Bi contributed to increased flower numbers, suggesting that floriculturists cultivating marigolds for ornamental purposes may be able to generate revenue in terms of productivity and quality of flowers when marigolds are grown on contaminated land.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salinthip Chunwichit
- Water and Soil Environmental Research Unit, Nakhonsawan Campus, Mahidol University, Nakhonsawan 60130, Thailand
| | - Theerawut Phusantisampan
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Science, King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
| | - Alapha Thongchai
- Faculty of Science Technology and Agriculture, Yala Rajabhat University, Yala 95000, Thailand
| | - Puntaree Taeprayoon
- Agricultural and Environmental Utilization Research Unit, Nakhonsawan Campus, Mahidol University, Nakhonsawan 60130, Thailand
| | - Natthapong Pechampai
- Academic and Curriculum Division, Nakhonsawan Campus, Mahidol University, Nakhonsawan 60130, Thailand
| | - Jittawan Kubola
- Department of Food Innovation and Processing, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Buriram Rajabhat University, Buriram 31000, Thailand
| | - John Pichtel
- Ball State University, Environment, Geology, and Natural Resources, Muncie, IN 47306, USA
| | - Weeradej Meeinkuirt
- Water and Soil Environmental Research Unit, Nakhonsawan Campus, Mahidol University, Nakhonsawan 60130, Thailand.
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Sitarska M, Traczewska T, Hołtra A, Zamorska-Wojdyła D, Filarowska W, Hanus-Lorenz B. Removal of mercury from water by phytoremediation process with Salvinia natans(L.) All. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:85494-85507. [PMID: 37389751 PMCID: PMC10404195 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-27533-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Mercury contamination from human activities is a severe environmental problem. The low cost of rhizofiltration of heavy metal-contaminated environments is causing an increasing interest in these technologies. The present study demonstrates the effectiveness of mercury removal from water by phytoremediation using S. natans. Plants cultured and collected from the environment were used. The study used Hoagland's liquid medium contaminated with mercury: 0.15, 0.20, and 0.30. The bioconcentration factor obtained was 275-780. The relative growth rate was up to 0.12 g/gd and was much better for cultured plants than those collected from the environment. The removal rate of toxic metal was up to 94%. Total protein increased for cultures plants by up to 84%, while it decreased by up to 30% for those taken from the environment. Total chlorophyll for cultured plants decreased by up to 54%, which could be due to the toxic effect of the metal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Sitarska
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Teodora Traczewska
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Anna Hołtra
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Dorota Zamorska-Wojdyła
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Wiktoria Filarowska
- Department, US Pharmacia Sp. z o.o., Ziebicka 40, Wrocław, 50-507 Lower Silesia Poland
| | - Beata Hanus-Lorenz
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże S. Wyspiańskiego 27, Wrocław, 50-370 Lower Silesia Poland
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Jia Y, Yin X, Zhao J, Pan Y, Jiang B, Liu Q, Li Y. Differential physiological responses and tolerance to potentially toxic elements in Primula forbesii Franch. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:67200-67216. [PMID: 37106307 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-27259-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Environmental pollution caused by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) has become a global problem that endangers environmental sustainability due to industrial, agricultural, and urban pollution. Primula forbesii Franch. (a synonym of Primula filipes G. Watt.) is a biennial flower native to China with excellent stress resistance and ornamental value. In this study, we examined the phenotypic traits, growth indexes, and physiological properties of P. forbesii in response to five representative PTEs (Cd, Ni, Cr(III), Cu, and Zn) under hydroponic culture conditions. High concentrations of Zn and Cr had little effect on the growth and physiological properties of P. forbesii, indicating that the species has strong tolerance to Zn and Cr stress. Alternatively, high concentrations of Cd, Ni, and Cu seriously affected plant growth and development, resulting in leaf chlorosis and even death, and therefore may have a serious negative impact on the growth of P. forbesii. However, activity levels of some antioxidant enzymes and osmotic regulatory substances remained high, indicating that P. forbesii resisted PTE stress by regulating physiological and biochemical metabolism to a certain extent. Furthermore, principal component analysis and membership function were used to comprehensively evaluate P. forbesii resistance to PTEs. These analyses revealed that P. forbesii exhibits distinct sensitivities and physiological responses to different PTEs and suggested that the resistance to five PTEs in decreasing order is Zn > Cr > Cd > Cu > Ni. These results provide a theoretical basis for the future application of P. forbesii in environments with PTE pollution and may expand its practical utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Jia
- College of Landscape Architecture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China.
| | - Xiancai Yin
- College of Landscape Architecture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Jian Zhao
- College of Landscape Architecture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Yuanzhi Pan
- College of Landscape Architecture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Beibei Jiang
- College of Landscape Architecture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Qinglin Liu
- College of Landscape Architecture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
| | - Yifeng Li
- College of Landscape Architecture, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, 611130, China
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Bedair H, Ghosh S, Abdelsalam IM, Keerio AA, AlKafaas SS. Potential implementation of trees to remediate contaminated soil in Egypt. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:78132-78151. [PMID: 36175731 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-22984-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Soil and water in Egypt have become contaminated with multiple pollutants. These contaminants arise from diverse sources, including misuse of fertilizers, industrial effluent discharged into irrigation water, discharge of wastewater in rural areas, and mining activities discharging wet and dry atmospheric deposits and heavy metal contamination. The pollutants can directly affect the quality of air, water, and food and have an adverse effect on human health. About 33% of the cultivated lands in Egypt are salinized due to extreme conditions like high temperatures and aridity. The presence of elevated salt levels in the soil leads to grave consequences for seed germination, plant biochemical processes, development, and reproduction, all of which result in the output of reactive oxygen species and eventually plant death. Despite the possibility of thermal, chemical, or a combination of the two to remediate contaminated soils, their applications are complicated and costly. Some plants, called hyperaccumulators, exhibit the potential to clean up pollutants safely from the soil and water at a low cost. All the technologies used in soil decontamination are called phytoremediation. Some physiological (e.g., phytoextraction, phytostabilization, phytotransformation, rhizofiltration, phytostimulation, phytovolatilization, phytodegradation, and phytodesalination) and molecular parameters (e.g., genes, peptides, and proteins) are involved in heavy metals accumulation of these plants. Although trees are not classified as hyperaccumulators, they have recently proved higher phytoremediation potential than herbaceous plants due to their deeper root system and greater biomass growth. Indeed, this review sheds the light on the application of trees for the phytoremediation of salts and heavy metals in Egypt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba Bedair
- Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, 31527, Egypt
| | - Soumya Ghosh
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9301, South Africa.
| | | | - Ayaz Ali Keerio
- Faculty of Crop Production, Sindh Agriculture University Tando Jam, Sindh, Hyderabad, Pakistan
| | - Samar Sami AlKafaas
- Chemistry Department, Division of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, 31527, Egypt
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Şentürk İ, Eyceyurt Divarcı NS, Öztürk M. Phytoremediation of nickel and chromium-containing industrial wastewaters by water lettuce ( Pistia stratiotes). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2022; 25:550-561. [PMID: 35786212 DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2022.2092063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study was conducted to assess the phytoremediation potential of Pistia stratiotes for post-treatment of Ni(II) and Cr(III)-containing industrial wastewater effluents in mono (synthetic wastewater) and bimetallic systems (real wastewater). Differences were seen in metal uptake, growth performance, and metal accumulation of the plants. In the monometallic system, the highest removal efficiency was calculated as 77.50% for Cr(III) and 70.79% for Ni(II) at 5 mg L-1 concentration. At 1.25 mg L-1 concentration, the bioconcentration factor of P. stratiotes was calculated as 734.2 for Ni(II) and 799.0 for Cr(III). To assess the effects of metal stress on plants, photosynthetic pigments and percent growth rates were also investigated. The percent growth rate increased from 38.22 to 81.74% for Ni and decreased from 87.53 to 43.18% for Cr(III) when the metal concentrations increased from 1.25 to 5 mg L-1. Toxicity symptoms were less severe in plants exposed to low Ni concentrations. The greatest reduction in chlorophyll was observed at 5 mg L-1 Ni concentration. P. stratiotes showed better performance in the monometallic system. It was concluded based on present findings that P. stratiotes could potentially be used for the post-treatment of wastewaters containing Ni and Cr.Novelty Statement Previous phytoremediation studies were mostly conducted only in either mono- or multi-metallic systems. In this study, mono- and bimetallic systems were assessed together and the feasibility of research findings on a large scale was investigated in detail. Present findings may also aid in the development of phyto-remedial strategies and the identification of Ni and Cr toxicity in macrophytes. Pistia stratiotes are already known for its incredible potential in removing metals and other contaminants from wastewater effluents. However, most studies only present data regarding the plant performance in laboratory studies (synthetic wastewater), while this study provides some important additional information on natural effluent conditions, which transform the presented data more interesting from a practical point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- İlknur Şentürk
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey
| | - Nur Sena Eyceyurt Divarcı
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Öztürk
- Department of Crop and Animal Production, Sivas Vocational School of Higher Education, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey
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Li YF, Zheng GD, Yang JX, Guo JM, Yang J, Chen TB. Effects of water-soluble chitosan on Hylotelephium spectabile and soybean growth, as well as Cd uptake and phytoextraction efficiency in a co-planting cultivation system. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOREMEDIATION 2022; 25:339-349. [PMID: 35689343 DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2022.2084500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Intercropping a Cd-accumulator with economically valuable crops is common in slightly or moderately Cd-polluted farmland soils. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of water-soluble chitosan (WSC) on the growth and Cd uptake of the Cd-accumulator Hylotelephium spectabile and soybean (Glycine max) during a co-cultivation in Cd-contaminated agricultural soil (WSC, 0 and 10 g·m-2). The results indicated that soybean yields were highest in response to the intercropping and WSC treatment. The results from the field trials generally showed that intercropping and WSC treatments significantly decreased Cd concentrations in inedible parts of soybean by 42.9-72.1% (except for stems), in the meantime, increased 95.8%-334.6% in shoot and root tissues of H. spectabile compared with the control (p < 0.05). The data revealed that Cd uptake was highest for H. spectabile during the intercropping and WSC treatment. The application of WSC in the intercropping system significantly increased the uptake of Cd by H. spectabile, but not by soybean. The findings of this study suggest that combining an intercropping system with a WSC treatment may be better for remediating Cd-contaminated soils than other methods involving the growth of a single hyperaccumulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Feng Li
- Center for Environmental Remediation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guo-Di Zheng
- Center for Environmental Remediation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jun-Xing Yang
- Center for Environmental Remediation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jun-Mei Guo
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Jinzhong, Shanxi, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Center for Environmental Remediation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tong-Bin Chen
- Center for Environmental Remediation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Metal Removal Kinetics, Bio-Accumulation and Plant Response to Nutrient Availability in Floating Treatment Wetland for Stormwater Treatment. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14111683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Floating treatment wetland (FTW) is a recent innovation to remove nutrients from stormwater, but little is known about its effectiveness for metal removal. This study aims to test the hypothesis that the metal removal performance of FTWs will be affected by nutrient (NH3-N, NO3-N, and PO4-P) availability in stormwater. Two experiments were carried out in nutrient-deficient tap water, and two experiments were carried out in nutrient-rich lake water using four native Australian plants, namely Carex fascicularis, Juncus kraussii, Eleocharis acuta, and Baumea preissii. Up to 81% Cu and 44.9% Zn removal were achieved by the plants in 16 days in tap water. A reduction in Cu and Zn removal of 28.4–57.3% and 1.0–19.7%, respectively, was observed in lake water compared with tap water for the same duration. The kinetic analysis also confirmed that plant metal uptake rates slowed down in lake water (0.018–0.088 L/mg/day for Cu and 0.005–0.018 L/mg/day for Zn) compared to tap water (0.586–0.825 L/mg/day for Cu and 0.025–0.052 L/mg/day for Zn). A plant tissue analysis revealed that E. acuta and B. preissii bioaccumulated more than 1000 mg/kg of both metals in their tissue, indicating high metal accumulation capacities. To overcome the slower metal uptake rate problem due to nutrient availability, future studies can investigate multi-species plantations with nutrient stripping plants and metal hyper-accumulator plants.
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