Chlorella vulgaris or Spirulina platensis mitigate lead acetate-induced testicular oxidative stress and apoptosis with regard to androgen receptor expression in rats

Lead Decreases Bone Morphogenetic Protein-7 (BMP-7) Expression and Increases Renal Cell Carcinoma Growth in a Sex-Divergent Manner

Both tissue and blood lead levels are elevated in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) patients. These studies assessed the impact of the subchronic lead challenge on the progression of RCC in vitro and in vivo. Lead challenge of Renca cells with 0.5 μM lead acetate for 10 consecutive passages decreased E-cadherin expression and cell aggregation. Proliferation, colony formation, and wound healing were increased. When lead-challenged cells were injected into mice, tumor size at day 21 was increased; interestingly, this increase was seen in male but not female mice. When mice were challenged with 32 ppm lead in drinking water for 20 weeks prior to tumor cell injection, there was an increase in tumor size in male, but not female, mice at day 21. To investigate the mechanism underlying the sex differences, the expression of sex hormone receptors in Renca cells was examined. Control Renca cells expressed estrogen receptor (ER) alpha but not ER beta or androgen receptor (AR), as assessed by qPCR, and the expression of ERα was increased in tumors in both sexes. In tumor samples harvested from lead-challenged cells, both ERα and AR were detected by qPCR, yet there was a significant decrease in AR seen in lead-challenged tumor cells from male mice only. This was paralleled by a plate-based array demonstrating the same sex difference in BMP-7 gene expression, which was also significantly decreased in tumors harvested from male but not female mice; this finding was validated by immunohistochemistry. A similar expression pattern was seen in tumors harvested from the mice challenged with lead in the drinking water. These data suggest that lead promotes RCC progression in a sex-dependent via a mechanism that may involve sex-divergent changes in BMP-7 expression.

Repro-protective activity of amygdalin and spirulina platensis in niosomes and conventional forms against aluminum chloride-induced testicular challenge in adult rats: role of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3B expressions

The male reproductive system is negatively influenced by Al exposure. Al represented a considerable hazard to men's reproduction capabilities. Amygdalin (AMG) and spirulina platensis (SP) have been considered to have a strong antioxidant and repro-protective activity; also, targeted drug delivery systems called niosomes improve the distribution of water-soluble medications like amygdalin and spirulina. Current study targeted to determine the effectiveness of AMG and SP against negative reproductive impact resulted by aluminum chloride (AlCl3) toxicity. Sixty adult male albino rats were separated into 6 groups, including the control group, which received distilled water; AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3; AMG+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+AMG; AMGLN+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+amygdalin-loaded niosomes; SP+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+SP; and SPLN+AlCl3 group, which received AlCl3+spirulina-loaded niosomes. All treatments were orally gavaged daily for 5 weeks, and rats were weighed weekly. At the termination of the experiment, some males (three from each group) were used for fertility traits via mating thirty virgin rat females (in a ratio of 1:2 and 2:3 male:female, respectively) followed by recording of birth weights and litter size (number of pups per each female) at birth to assess males' reproductive capability. Other males were euthanized for collection of serum, epididymal semen samples, and tissue samples for biochemical, sperm evaluation, gene expression, and histopathological measurements. There are a considerable number of negative impacts of AlCl3 on male fertility clarified by declined serum testosterone levels; an increased oxidative stress (MDA, TAC); deteriorated semen quality; down-regulation of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3b gene expressions; and testicular tissue degenerative changes. In addition, litter size (number of pups per each female) and birth weights of pups obtained from mated females were affected. AMG and SP treatments, either in niosomal or conventional form, alleviated the AlCl3 negative effects by reducing oxidative stress; increasing testosterone levels; improving semen quality; upregulating of CYP11A1, StAR, and HSD-3b gene expressions; and reducing degenerative changes of testicular tissue. Besides, negative reproductive effect was diminished as observed by changes in the litter size (number of pups per each female) and birth weights of pups obtained from mated females. AMG and SP treatments (either in niosomal or conventional form), ameliorated the AlCl3 negative effects as they possess powerful antioxidant activity, as well as they have the ability to improve the reproductive activity of affected males.

Bioactive compounds as potential alternative treatments to prevent cancer therapy-induced male infertility

About 8-12% of couples experience infertility, with male infertility being the cause in 50% of cases. Several congenital and acquired conditions, including chronic diseases and their treatments, can contribute to male infertility. Prostate cancer incidence increases annually by roughly 3%, leading to an increment in cancer treatments that have adverse effects on male fertility. To preserve male fertility post-cancer survival, conventional cancer treatments use sperm cryopreservation and hormone stimulation. However, these techniques are invasive, expensive, and unsuitable in prepubertal patients lacking mature sperm cells. Alternatively, nutritional therapies enriched with bioactive compounds are highlighted as non-invasive approaches to prevent male infertility that are easily implementable and cost-effective. In fact, curcumin and resveratrol are two examples of bioactive compounds with chemo-preventive effects at the testicular level. In this article, we summarize and discuss the literature regarding bioactive compounds and their mechanisms in preventing cancer treatment-induced male infertility. This information may lead to novel opportunities for future interventions.

The Role of Chlorella vulgaris in Attenuating Infertility Induced by Cadmium Chloride via Suppressing Oxidative Stress and Modulating Spermatogenesis and Steroidogenesis in Male Rats

Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental pollutant known as endocrine disruptor . Cd has been reported to induce perturbations of the testicular functions and the subsequent decline of the male fertility of both animals and humans. Chlorella vulgaris (ChV) a species of green microalga has been reported to have multiple beneficial activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiapoptotic effects. Thus, this work was conducted to declare the benefits of Chlorella vulgaris (ChV) (500 mg/kg doses) against cadmium chloride CdCl2 (2 mg/kg doses) toxicity on the main and accessory reproductive organs' weight, structure, and function of male rats. Briefly, 40 adult male rats in 4 groups (n = 10) were used as follows; control, ChV, CdCl2, and CdCl2+ChV. (i) The 1st group was kept as control fed on pellet chow and water ad libitum. (ii) The second group is Chlorella vulgaris (ChV) group fed with C. vulgaris alga for 10 days (500 mg/kg BW). (iii) The third group was administrated CdCl2 (2mg/kg BW) via subcutaneous injection (S/C) daily for 10 days. (iv) The fourth group administered both CdCl2 and ChV with the abovementioned doses daily for successive 10 days. Our observations declared that cadmium exhibited an adverse influence on the testes and prostate gland architecture indicated by seminiferous tubule destruction, testicular edema, degeneration of Leydig cells, and prostate acini damage. All together affect the epididymal semen quality and quantity including sperm viability, motility, and count. Interestingly, ChV could restore the testicular architecture and spermatozoa regeneration accompanied by semen quality improvement and increased reproductive hormones including testosterone. On the other side, ChV suppresses reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation via enhancement the antioxidant-related genes in the testicular tissue including SOD, CAT, GSH, and MDA and maintaining spermatocyte survival via suppression of apoptotic related genes including caspase3 and activating steroidogenic related genes including StAR and HSD17β3 in the cadmium-treated testes. In this study, ChV could enhance male fertility under normal or stressful conditions and ameliorate the adverse effects of hazardous heavy metals that are widely distributed in our environment.

Beet leaf (beta vulgaris L.) extract attenuates iron-induced testicular toxicity: Experimental and computational approach

The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effect of Beta vulgaris leaf extract (BVLE) on Fe2+-induced oxidative testicular damage via experimental and computational models. Oxidative testicular damage was induced via incubation of testicular tissue supernatant with 0.1 mM FeSO4 for 30 min at 37 °C. Treatment was achieved by incubating the testicular tissues with BVLE under the same conditions. The catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitric oxide (NO) levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase (Na+/K + ATPase), ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (ENTPDase), glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (F-1,6-BPase) were all measured in the tissues. We identified the bioactive compounds present using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Molecular docking and dynamic simulations were done on all identified compounds using a computational approach. The induction of testicular damage (p < 0.05) decreased the activities of GSH, SOD, CAT, and ENTPDase. In contrast, induction of testicular damage also resulted in a significant increase in MDA and NO levels and an increase in ATPase, G6Pase, and F-1,6-BPase activities. BVLE treatment (p < 0.05) reduced these levels and activities compared to control levels. An HPLC investigation revealed fifteen compounds in BVLE, with quercetin being the most abundant. The molecular docking and MDS analysis of the present study suggest that schaftoside may be an effective allosteric inhibitor of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase based on the interacting residues and the subsequent effect on the dynamic loop conformation. These findings indicate that B. vulgaris can protect against Fe2+-induced testicular injury by suppressing oxidative stress, acetylcholinesterase, and purinergic activities while regulating carbohydrate dysmetabolism.

The effects of Chlorella vulgaris on cardiovascular risk factors: A comprehensive review on putative molecular mechanisms

High incidence rate of cardiovascular disease (CVD) make this condition as an important public health concern. The use of natural products in treating this chronic condition has increased in recent years one of which is the single-celled green alga Chlorella. Chlorella vulgaris (CV) has been studied for its potential benefits to human health due to its biological and pharmacological features. CV contains a variety of macro and micronutrients, including proteins, omega-3, polysaccharides, vitamins, and minerals. Some studies have indicated that taking CV as a dietary supplement can help reduce inflammation and oxidative stress. In some studies, cardiovascular risk factors that are based on hematological indices did not show these benefits, and no molecular mechanisms have been identified. This comprehensive review summarized the research on the cardio-protective benefits of chlorella supplementation and the underlying molecular processes.

The Biochemical Effects of Silver Nanoparticles and Spirulina Extract on Experimentally Induced Prostatic Cancer in Rats

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most diagnosed cancer in 112 countries and the second leading cause of death in men in 48 countries. We studied the outstanding agents silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and Spirulina algae (Sp) for the management of PCa once as monotherapy or last as a combination. PCa in rats was induced using bicalutamide (Casodex®) and testosterone, followed by (7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene). Then, testosterone was injected s.c. for 3 months. Rats were divided into six groups, with 12 rats in each group. Group I was assigned as the control (co), group II as the PCa model, group III treated with AgNPs, group IV treated with Spirulina extract, group V treated with a combination of AgNPs plus Spirulina, and group VI treated with bicalutamide. The results show that AgNPs could normalize IL-6 levels and could overcome the hormonal disturbance induced in PCa rats along the hypothalamic-pituitary-testis axis. Spirulina revealed a significant reduction in the level of total and free prostatic specific antigen (PSA) to the same level as bicalutamide treatment, which was the same as the control group. Histopathological study revealed regression (75%) of the histological pattern of high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) for Spirulina alone, and (50%) for bicalutamide. The best effect on IL-6 decline was reached with the AgNPs/Spirulina combination as well as bicalutamide treatment compared with the PCa group. Bicalutamide treatment significantly decreased the PSA concentration relative to the PCa group and reached the normal level. Adding Spirulina to AgNPs as a combination enhanced its effect on all mentioned drawbacks associated with PCa except hormonal imbalance that needs more adjustments.

Mechanistic insight into the protective effects of fisetin against arsenic-induced reproductive toxicity in male rats

Arsenic is one of the most hazardous environmental contaminants, which adversely affects the dynamics of male reproductive system. Fisetin (FIS) is a bioactive flavonoid, which is known to exert strong antioxidative effects. Therefore, the current research was planned to evaluate the alleviative efficacy of FIS against arsenic-induced reproductive damages. Forty-eight male albino rats were divided into 4 groups (n = 12), which were treated as follows: (1) Control, (2) Arsenic-intoxicated group (8 mg kg^-1), (3) Arsenic + FIS-treated group (8 mg kg^-1 + 10 mg kg^-1), and (4) FIS-treated group (10 mgkg^-1). After 56 days of treatment, the biochemical, lipidemic, steroidogenic, hormonal, spermatological, apoptotic and histoarchitectural profiles of rats were analyzed. Arsenic intoxication reduced the enzymatic activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GSR), in addition to glutathione (GSH) level. Conversely, the levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were increased. Moreover, it escalated the level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides and total cholesterol, while declining the level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Furthermore, steroidogenic enzymes expressions, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD), 17β-HSD, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1) and 17α-hydroxylase/17, 20-lyase (CYP17A1), were found to be reduced, which brought down the level of testosterone. Besides, the levels of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) were decreased. Additionally, a decline in sperm mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), motility, epididymal sperm count and hypo-osmotic swelling (HOS) coil-tailed sperms was observed, whereas the dead sperms and structural damages (head, midpiece and tail) of sperms were escalated. Moreover, arsenic exposure up-regulated the mRNA expressions of apoptotic markers, namely Bax and caspase-3, whereas lowered the expression of anti-apoptotic marker, Bcl-2. In addition, it induced histoarchitectural changes in testes of rats. However, FIS treatment resulted in remarkable improvements in testicular and sperm parameters. Therefore, it was inferred that FIS could serve as a therapeutic candidate against arsenic-generated male reproductive toxicity attributing to its anti-oxidant, anti-lipoperoxidative, anti-apoptotic, and androgenic efficacy.

Quercetin Abates Aluminum Trioxide Nanoparticles and Lead Acetate Induced Altered Sperm Quality, Testicular Oxidative Damage, and Sexual Hormones Disruption in Male Rats

This study examined the effects of exposure to lead acetate (PbAc) and/or aluminum trioxide nanoparticles (Al₂O₃NPs) on testicular function. Additionally, the probable reproprotective effects of quercetin (QTN) against Al₂O₃NPs and PbAc co-exposure in male Sprague Dawely rats were assessed. Al₂O₃NPs (100 mg/kg b.wt.), PbAc (50 mg/kg b.wt.), and QTN (20 mg/kg b.wt.) were orally administered for 60 days. Then, spermiogram, histopathological examinations of the testis and accessory glands, and immunohistochemical detection of androgen receptors (AR) and tumor necrotic factor alpha (TNF-α) were achieved. Moreover, serum levels of male sex hormones and testicular levels of antioxidant indices were estimated. The results showed that Al₂O₃NP_s and/or PbAc caused significant sperm abnormalities, testicular oxidative stress, and histopathological changes. Furthermore, serum testosterone, LH, and FSH levels significantly decreased, while estradiol levels significantly increased. The Al₂O₃NPs and/or PbAc co-exposed group had more obvious disturbances. Furthermore, QTN co-administration significantly reversed the Al₂O₃NPs and PbAc-induced testicular histopathological alterations, reduced antioxidant defenses, and altered AR and TNF-α immune expression in testicular tissues. Conclusively, Al₂O₃NPs and/or PbAc evoked testicular dysfunction by inducing oxidative injury and inflammation. However, QTN oral dosing effectively mitigated the negative effects of Al₂O₃NPs and PbAc by suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation and improving the antioxidant defense system.

Dietary chlorella (Chlorella vulgaris) supplementation effectively improves body color, alleviates muscle inflammation and inhibits apoptosis in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

Muscle quality, antioxidant status, and inflammatory and apoptotic molecule expression were investigated in juvenile largemouth bass fed five levels of Chlorella for 60 days. The results showed that muscle quality can be improved by increasing the muscle crude protein content, muscle and skin brightness value (L*), redness value (a*) and yellowness value (b*) in Chlorella-supplemented diets without affecting the growth and muscle fiber development of fish. Chlorella supplementation did not cause oxidative stress in muscle, but optimal Chlorella administration alleviated the muscle inflammatory response by downregulating the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)-mediated proinflammatory factors such as interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and interleukin 8 (IL-8). Moreover, anti-apoptotic effects were induced by upregulation of anti-apoptotic genes, such as b cell lymphoma-2 (bcl-2) and myeloid cell leukemia-1 (mcl-1), and downregulation of pro-apoptotic genes, including bcl2-associated x (bax) and caspase3. In conclusion, Chlorella improved muscle quality, alleviated muscle inflammation and resisted muscle apoptosis.

The effects and molecular mechanism of heat stress on spermatogenesis and the mitigation measures

Under normal conditions, to achieve optimal spermatogenesis, the temperature of the testes should be 2-6 °C lower than body temperature. Cryptorchidism is one of the common pathogenic factors of male infertility. The increase of testicular temperature in male cryptorchidism patients leads to the disorder of body regulation and balance, induces the oxidative stress response of germ cells, destroys the integrity of sperm DNA, yields morphologically abnormal sperm, and leads to excessive apoptosis of germ cells. These physiological changes in the body can reduce sperm fertility and lead to male infertility. This paper describes the factors causing testicular heat stress, including lifestyle and behavioral factors, occupational and environmental factors (external factors), and clinical factors caused by pathological conditions (internal factors). Studies have shown that wearing tight pants or an inappropriate posture when sitting for a long time in daily life, and an increase in ambient temperature caused by different seasons or in different areas, can cause an increase in testicular temperature, induces testicular oxidative stress response, and reduce male fertility. The occurrence of cryptorchidism causes pathological changes within the testis and sperm, such as increased germ cell apoptosis, DNA damage in sperm cells, changes in gene expression, increase in chromosome aneuploidy, and changes in Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity, etc. At the end of the article, we list some substances that can relieve oxidative stress in tissues, such as trigonelline, melatonin, R. apetalus, and angelica powder. These substances can protect testicular tissue and relieve the damage caused by excessive oxidative stress.