Ginsenosides, ingredients of the root of Panax ginseng, are not substrates but inhibitors of sodium-glucose transporter 1

Ginsenoside Rg5 enhances the radiosensitivity of lung adenocarcinoma via reducing HSP90-CDC37 interaction and promoting client protein degradation

Ginsenoside Rg5 is a rare ginsenoside showing promising tumor-suppressive effects. This study aimed to explore its radio-sensitizing effects and the underlying mechanisms. Human lung adenocarcinoma cell lines A549 and Calu-3 were used for in vitro and in vivo analysis. Bioinformatic molecular docking prediction and following validation by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology, cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA), and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) were conducted to explore the binding between ginsenoside Rg5 and 90 kD heat shock protein alpha (HSP90α). The effects of ginsenoside Rg5 on HSP90-cell division cycle 37 (CDC37) interaction, the client protein stability, and the downstream regulations were further explored. Results showed that ginsenoside Rg5 could induce cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase and enhance irradiation-induced cell apoptosis. It could bind to HSP90α with a high affinity, but the affinity was drastically decreased by HSP90α Y61A mutation. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) and ITC assays confirmed that ginsenoside Rg5 disrupts the HSP90-CDC37 interaction in a dose-dependent manner. It reduced irradiation-induced upregulation of the HSP90-CDC37 client proteins, including SRC, CDK4, RAF1, and ULK1 in A549 cell-derived xenograft (CDX) tumors. Ginsenoside Rg5 or MRT67307 (an IKKε/TBK1 inhibitor) pretreatment suppressed irradiation-induced elevation of the LC3-II/β ratio and restored irradiation-induced downregulation of p62 expression. In A549 CDX tumors, ginsenoside Rg5 treatment suppressed LC3 expression and enhanced irradiation-induced DNA damage. In conclusion, ginsenoside Rg5 may be a potential radiosensitizer for lung adenocarcinoma. It interacts with HSP90α and reduces the binding between HSP90 and CDC37, thereby increasing the ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation of the HSP90-CDC37 client proteins.

Photoprotective Effect of Fermented and Aged Mountain-Cultivated Ginseng Sprout (Panax ginseng) on Ultraviolet Radiation-Induced Skin Aging in a Hairless Mouse Model

Interest in foods that promote inner beauty increases with increases in exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays and with improvements in quality of life. This study was performed to evaluate the efficacy of fermented and aged mountain-cultivated ginseng sprouts (FAMCGSs), which have higher anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects compared to mountain-cultivated ginseng sprouts (MCGSs), as an inner beauty enhancing food. The effect of orally administered FAMCGSs on UV type B (UVB) radiation-induced skin aging was investigated in a hairless mouse model through analyzing skin parameters including epidermal thickness, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), roughness, moisture, elasticity, and collagen contents. The mice exposed to UVB had markedly greater epidermal thickness, TEWL, and skin roughness than those of the normal control (NC) group. In addition, the levels of collagen, skin moisture, and dermal elasticity were lower in the UVB radiation group than the NC group. These UVB-induced skin aging parameters were significantly lower in the groups administered FAMCGSs than in the groups not administered FAMCGSs (p < 0.05). These results show that FAMCGSs exhibit a photoprotective effect in mice exposed to UVB and suggest that FAMCGSs can be used as a food that promotes inner beauty and protects skin from UVB-induced photoaging.

Physical, chemical, and biological characterization of ginsenoside F1 incorporated in nanostructured lipid carrier

This study was aimed to determine the physical property and thermodynamic stability of nanostructured lipid carrier suspension incorporating ginsenoside F1 (GF1_NLC), and to evaluate its transport and antioxidant properties. GF1_NLC suspension possessed spherical particles with an average size of 98.9 nm, and the encapsulation efficiency reached approximately 90%. There was a good compatibility between ginsenoside F1 (GF1) and the nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) formulation, giving no contribution to the changes in the structural organization and crystallization behavior of lipid particles. However, the incorporation of GF1 reduced the thermodynamic stability of the lipid particles. The permeability of GF1_NLC (39.2%) across Caco-2 cell monolayer was higher than that of free GF1 (26.0%); however, no significant differences were observed in the radical scavenging activity (84.1% and 85.5%, respectively). In conclusion, NLC could be a potential candidate for the delivery of GF1 into the living body due to its small particle size, high encapsulation efficiency, and improved permeability. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Poor water solubility in an aqueous solution and low absorption rate of ginsenoside F1 in the intestinal track limit its practical application in food systems. In this study, ginsenoside F1 was encapsulated in nanostructured lipid carrier to enhance its water solubility and absorption rate. The results of the encapsulated ginsenoside F1 showed high encapsulation efficiency of 90% with fine particle size of 98.9 nm that could correspond to the enhancement of water solubility in an aqueous solution and permeability across Caco-2 cell monolayer. The results may encourage the food industry to utilize this encapsulation technique for the enhancement of the functional properties of poorly water-soluble bioactive compounds.

Ginsenoside Ro Ameliorates High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity and Insulin Resistance in Mice via Activation of the G Protein-Coupled Bile Acid Receptor 5 Pathway

Obesity, a well known risk factor in multiple metabolic diseases, is dramatically increasing worldwide. Ginsenosides extracted from ginseng have been reported against obesity and the associated metabolic disorders. As a subtype of ginsenoside, ginsenoside Ro is a critical constituent of ginseng. However, its specific effects on obesity remain unknown. G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 5 (TGR5) (also known as GPBAR1) is a bile acid membrane receptor, widely expressed in human tissues contributing to various metabolic processes to confer the regulations of glucose and lipid homeostasis. TGR5 has displayed potential as a therapeutic target for the treatment of metabolic disorders. Here, we explore the antiobesity effect of ginsenoside Ro with TGR5 activation screened by a library of natural products. Our results showed that the ginsenoside Ro (90mg/kg) treatment ameliorated body weight and lipid accumulation in multiple metabolic organs of high-fat diet-induced obese (DIO) mice without affecting food intake and improved oral glucose tolerance tests, intraperitoneal insulin tolerance tests, and fasting serum glucose. We also found that triglyceride and total cholesterol in serum and liver were significantly decreased after ginsenoside Ro treatment. Then we used Tgr5 knockout mice to explore the role of Tgr5 in the antiobesity effect of ginsenoside Ro. Our results further demonstrated that ginsenoside Ro promoted glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) secretion and energy expenditure in wild-type DIO mice. However, the stimulation of ginsenoside Ro on GLP-1 secretion and energy expenditure were restrained in the Tgr5 knockout mice. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that ginsenoside Ro ameliorates obesity and insulin resistance in DIO mice via activating TGR5, indicating a potential therapeutic role of ginsenoside Ro to treat obesity and its associated metabolic diseases. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Obesity is dramatically increasing worldwide, and it contributes to multiple metabolic diseases. G protein-coupled bile acid receptor 5 (TGR5) is a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of metabolic disorders. Ginsenoside Ro, as an oleanane-type ginsenoside, ameliorates obesity and insulin resistance, promotes glucagon-like peptide 1 secretion, and increases energy expenditure via activating TGR5. Ginsenoside Ro could be a potential leading compound for treating obesity and its associated metabolic diseases.

Lipid Membranes as Key Targets for the Pharmacological Actions of Ginsenosides

In this review, we will focus on the activity of ginsenosides on membranes and their related effects, from physicochemical, biophysical, and pharmacological viewpoints. Ginsenosides are a class of saponins with a large structural diversity and a wide range of pharmacological effects. These effects can at least partly be related to their activity on membranes which results from their amphiphilic character. Some ginsenosides are able to interact with membrane lipids and associate into nanostructures, making them possible adjuvants for vaccines. They are able to modulate membrane biophysical properties such as membrane fluidity, permeability or the formation of lateral domains with some degree of specificity towards certain cell types such as bacteria, fungi, or cancer cells. In addition, they have shown antioxidant properties which protect membranes from lipid oxidation. They further displayed some activity on membrane proteins either through direct or indirect interaction. We investigate the structure activity relationship of ginsenosides on membranes and discuss the implications and potential use as anticancer, antibacterial, and antifungal agents.

Impact of Drug Metabolism/Pharmacokinetics and their Relevance Upon Traditional Medicine-based Cardiovascular Drug Research

BACKGROUND

The representative cardiovascular herbs, i.e. Panax, Ligusticum, Carthamus, and Pueraria plants, are traditionally and globally used in the prevention and treatment of various cardiovascular diseases. Modern phytochemical studies have found many medicinal compounds from these plants, and their unique pharmacological activities are being revealed. However, there are few reviews that systematically summarize the current trends of Drug Metabolism/Pharmacokinetic (DMPK) investigations of cardiovascular herbs.

METHODS

Here, the latest understanding, as well as the knowledge gaps of the DMPK issues in drug development and clinical usage of cardiovascular herbal compounds, was highlighted.

RESULTS

The complicated herb-herb interactions of cardiovascular Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) herb pair/formula significantly impact the PK/pharmacodynamic performance of compounds thereof, which may inspire researchers to develop a novel herbal formula for the optimized outcome of different cardiovascular diseases. While the Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity (ADME/T) of some compounds has been deciphered, DMPK studies should be extended to more cardiovascular compounds of different medicinal parts, species (including animals), and formulations, and could be streamlined by versatile omics platforms and computational analyses.

CONCLUSION

In the context of systems pharmacology, the DMPK knowledge base is expected to translate bench findings to clinical applications, as well as foster cardiovascular drug discovery and development.

Intestinal Saturated Long-Chain Fatty Acid, Glucose and Fructose Transporters and Their Inhibition by Natural Plant Extracts in Caco-2 Cells

The intestinal absorption of fatty acids, glucose and fructose is part of the basic requirements for the provision of energy in the body. High access of saturated long-chain fatty acids (LCFA), glucose and fructose can facilitate the development of metabolic diseases, particularly the metabolic syndrome and type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Research has been done to find substances which decelerate or inhibit intestinal resorption of these specific food components. Promising targets are the inhibition of intestinal long-chain fatty acid (FATP2, FATP4), glucose (SGLT1, GLUT2) and fructose (GLUT2, GLUT5) transporters by plant extracts and by pure substances. The largest part of active components in plant extracts belongs to the group of polyphenols. This review summarizes the knowledge about binding sites of named transporters and lists the plant extracts which were tested in Caco-2 cells regarding uptake inhibition.

Therapeutic Potential of Ginsenosides as an Adjuvant Treatment for Diabetes

Ginseng, one of the oldest traditional Chinese medicinal herbs, has been used widely in China and Asia for thousands of years. Ginsenosides extracted from ginseng, which is derived from the roots and rhizomes of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, have been used in China as an adjuvant in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Owing to the technical complexity of ginsenoside production, the total ginsenosides are generally extracted. Accumulating evidence has shown that ginsenosides exert antidiabetic effects. In vivo and in vitro tests revealed the potential of ginsenoside Rg1, Rg3, Rg5, Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, compound K, Rk1, Re, ginseng total saponins, malonyl ginsenosides, Rd, Rh2, F2, protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT)-type saponins to treat diabetes and its complications, including type 1 diabetes mellitus, type 2 diabetes mellitus, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic cognitive dysfunction, type 2 diabetes mellitus with fatty liver disease, diabetic cerebral infarction, diabetic cardiomyopathy, and diabetic erectile dysfunction. Many effects are attributed to ginsenosides, including gluconeogenesis reduction, improvement of insulin resistance, glucose transport, insulinotropic action, islet cell protection, hepatoprotective activity, anti-inflammatory effect, myocardial protection, lipid regulation, improvement of glucose tolerance, antioxidation, improvement of erectile dysfunction, regulation of gut flora metabolism, neuroprotection, anti-angiopathy, anti-neurotoxic effects, immunosuppression, and renoprotection effect. The molecular targets of these effects mainly contains GLUTs, SGLT1, GLP-1, FoxO1, TNF-α, IL-6, caspase-3, bcl-2, MDA, SOD, STAT5-PPAR gamma pathway, PI3K/Akt pathway, AMPK-JNK pathway, NF-κB pathway, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Rg1, Rg3, Rb1, and compound K demonstrated the most promising therapeutic prospects as potential adjuvant medicines for the treatment of diabetes. This paper highlights the underlying pharmacological mechanisms of the anti-diabetic effects of ginsenosides.

Effect of ninjin'yoeito and ginseng extracts on oxaliplatin-induced neuropathies in mice

Oxaliplatin (L-OHP) is a platinum-based anticancer agent used to treat various types of cancer. It frequently causes acute and chronic peripheral neuropathies, such as cold allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia. Ninjin'yoeito (NYT) is a formula used in traditional Japanese Kampo medicine to improve recovery from diseases and other medical disorders. We previously reported that treatment with a boiling-water extract of NYT prevented L-OHP-induced damage to neurite-like outgrowths from differentiated PC12 cells. The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the in vivo effects of NYT on L-OHP-induced neuropathic pain in mice and identify the active ingredients in NYT. Treatment with NYT extract significantly ameliorated both cold allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia induced by L-OHP. While L-OHP treatment suppressed neurite outgrowths from primary dorsal root ganglion cells in vitro, NYT extract blocked this suppression in a concentration-dependent manner. Among the herbal components of NYT, the extract of ginseng (Panax ginseng roots) showed a protective effect against neurite damage induced by L-OHP, and one of its active ingredients was identified as ginsenoside Rg₃. Ginseng extract partially relieved L-OHP-induced neuropathic pain in mice. Our results suggest that NYT could be an attractive agent for treating L-OHP-induced neuropathic pain, and that the active ingredient of NYT may be ginseng.